STYLISTICS AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS
What is
stylistics?
·
This is the branch of language study that deals
with how language varies in different contexts of use.
·
Stylistics is the study of language varieties or
styles, depending on the situation or context whether spoken or written.
·
Stylistics is
the description and analysis of the variability of linguistic forms in actual
language use. The concepts of ‘style’ and ‘stylistic variation’ in language
rest on the general assumption that within the language system, the same
content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form.
·
Therefore stylistics aims at studying the
language features (lexical, grammatical/syntactical, phonological, graphological
/ graphetic, and semantic features.
THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE VARIATIONS
The concept of language variation
is looked at in two levels/perspectives. First, we look at language variations
existing due to some characteristics of users of that language. Secondly, we
look at the variations caused by some situations in which the language is used.
Considering style as choice, there
are a multitude of stylistic factors that lead the language user to prefer
certain linguistic forms to others. These factors can be grouped into two
categories: user-bound factors and factors referring to the situation where the
language is being used.
User-bound
factors include, among others, the speaker’s or writer’s age; gender;
idiosyncratic preferences; and regional and social background.
Situation-bound
stylistic factors depend on the given communication situation, such as
medium (spoken vs. written); participation in discourse (monologue vs.
dialogue); attitude/tenor (level of formality); and field/province of discourse
(e.g. technical vs. nontechnical fields).
VARIETIES
OF LANGUAGE
1. Variation
according to users. (Dialect)
2. Variation
according to use (Register)
DIALECT
Ø Dialect is
the variety of language according to user.
Ø Chambers & Trudgill
(1980:5) consider dialects as varieties, which are grammatically (and perhaps
lexically) as well as phonologically different from other varieties.
Ø Stewart & Vaillet
(2001:301) define a dialect as any variety of language spoken by a group of
people that is characterized by systematic differences from other varieties of
the same language in terms of structural or lexical features.
Ø Dialect can be defined as a variant of
the language distinguished by minimal lexical, grammatical, and phonological
differences.
Ø Dialect refers to features of grammar
and vocabulary in addition to pronunciation that can identify someone’s
geographical origin. E.g.
Ø I done it yesterday
Ø They really good. (Am E)
Ø I did it yesterday
Ø They are really good. (Br E)
FACTORS
THAT GIVE RISE TO DIALECTS
Users of the same
language use the language variably depending on some factors. The following are
the factors that determine the dialect formation.
a. User’s place
of origin (Geographical factor).
b. User’s class
membership (Social stratification).
c. User’s
individuality.
d. Users time of
existence (historical/temporal factor).
e. User’s age.
f.
User’s sex.
1. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTOR (REGIONAL DIALECT.)
It is easy to identify a user from a
certain place by the way someone uses the language different from the other
users from other place that speak the same language. Here we get the dialect
that is called REGIONAL DIALECT.
Regional dialects are found at
national and international levels. For example the Dialects of English at
national level include Welsh, Scottish, cockney, and BBC English. At
international level we have, British English, American English, Canadian
English, Australian English, West African Pidgin English (WAPE)etc.
Likewise, Kiswahili has regional
dialects such as Kimvita (Mombasa), Kiunguja (Zanzibar), Kingwana (Zaire) etc.
The common differences between the two major
Varieties of English.
BRITISH
ENGLISH
(BrE)
|
AMERICAN
ENGLISH (AmE)
|
|
GRAMMAR
|
i. Has one
form of past and past participle of the verb get-got
|
Has two forms
Get-gotten(pp)-got
(pt)
|
ii. Repetition
of the subject ‘one’
Eg. One
cannot succeed unless one works hard.
|
No repletion of ‘one’
Eg. One cannot succeed
unless he/she works hard.
|
|
iii. In
questions
Eg Have you
got a pen?
|
Do you have a pen?
|
|
iv. Use of
preposition ‘from’ after different
Eg. Your
shirt is different from mine.
|
Uses ‘than’ after
different.
Eg. Your shirt is
different than mine.
|
|
v. Retains
‘should’ after the verbs like demand, require, suggest, insist. Eg
We suggest
that Sir Mwita should preach today.
|
Omits ‘should’ after
those verbs.
We suggest that Mwita
preach today.
|
|
PRONUNCIATION
|
There are many words
that differ in pronunciation some of them are:Schedule /∫edju;l/
News /nju:z/
car /ka:/
God /gɒd/
|
Schedule /skeʤu:l/
News / nu:z/
car /ka:r/
God /ga:d/
|
SPELLING/
ORTHOGRAPHY
|
Programme
Theatre
Catalogue
Colour
Disk
cheque
|
Program
Theatre
Catalog
Color
Disc
check
|
LEXICON/
VOCABULARY
|
Chemist
Maize
Elevator
Sweet
Petrol
Cv
Railway
Lorry
|
Dentist
Corn
lift
candy
gas
resume
railroad
truck
|
2. USER’S CLASS MEMBERSHIP/SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
We can also find users
from a certain class speaking differently in certain aspects from users of
another class who speak the same language. Here we get social dialect or sociolect.
The classes may be those
of higher and lower, educated and uneducated, town dwellers and village
dwellers, Muslims and Christians, etc.
3. USER’S TIME OF EXISTENCE
(HISTORICAL/TEMPORAL
FACTOR)
Languages change with
time (it is dynamic). Users of any language also use the language as it is used
in their time of existence. This causes the varieties labelled as Old English,
Middle English and Modern English. Language changes in all aspects, i.e.
grammar, vocabulary, word order, spellings, meaning, pronunciation etc. Take
for instance the following words how they have changed overtime.
OE VOCABULARY
Some of the old English vocabulary may look like the modern vocabulary
but some may look different.
OE Mo E
Singan
sing
stōd stood
ondswarede
answered
onslepte
asleep
Compare the following
gelimplice
suitable
neata cattle
swefn dream
beboden
entrust
4. USER’S INDIVIDUALITY (IDIOSYNCRATIC FACTOR)
Every individual user of
a language has individual idiosyncratic (peculiar) linguistic features
characterising the way he/she uses the language different from all the other
users. Linguists believe that no two speakers of the same language speak
exactly the same way. The differences in individual ranges from voice quality,
pronunciation, grammar, usage, handwriting and preference in certain utterances
like: you know.., in fact...., I see...,.
The variety of language characterising an individual user is termed as IDIOLECT
5. USER’S AGE
Users of different ages
use language differently in almost all such aspects as voice, pronunciation,
vocabulary, and usage. We categorize age in terms of childhood, youth and old
age. Children have their own way of speaking termed as childish. E.g. Motherese
(an adult imitation of the speech of young children as used by mothers when
speaking to their children.)
Young people’s dialect
is characterised by slangs and peculiar accent. Old people use euphemism much
often and sometimes they conservatively retain dated features of the language.
6. USER’S SEX.
Language also varies
with sex in some aspects that make male users speak differently from female
users. The difference is usually found in their voice quality, accent, as well
as general usage, such that there as some expressions that are counted as
feminine and masculine in nature. (Consider the Swahili slangs shostii
and shoga
which means best friend, can male speakers use them)
REGISTER.
This is a variety
according to use. All the users of the language sometimes change their style of
speaking or writing depending on some situational variables. The varieties that
are influenced by different situations or social circumstances are called registers.
The variation can be
reflected in vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and meaning.
FACTORS THAT GIVE RISE TO REGISTER
1.
FIELD
(DOMAIN) OF DISCOURSE.
The term field or domain
of discourse refers to an area in which the language is used. Language will
vary according to the domain or field in which the user is. Under the term
field we consider such things as, setting (the real environment), province
(occupational activity) and subject matter (topic)
(a).
Setting
This refers to areas
where events are taking place. The place where communication is taking place
can be in the church, courtroom, school, street etc. The setting makes a person
choose a certain variety as appropriate. The setting can be formal, thus
calling for a serious business-like kind of style called formal register or
informal register. Some settings call for technical style. E.g. salt and water
as used at home are sodium Chloride and H2O in science domain.
(b).
Province.
This is a term used to
refer to the occupational or professional activity the user is engaged in. Or
it is the area of specialization to which the language is put into use. There are
various provinces that give rise to specific styles. These include
conversational, religious, law (legal), advertisement, literature, science,
journalism, scripted and unscripted commentaries, literature, and etc. Each province
has its peculiar stylistic features that make it distinct from others.
e.g. Can you state the
province to which the following words belong; software, download, flash disc, megabytes, database, website, etc.
(c).
Subject matter.
This refers to the topic
discussed. For example the province of science may have subject matters such as
biology, physics, psychology, geography. Some remarkable stylistic variations
can be found in these different disciplines.
2.
MODE OF
DISCOURSE.
Mode basically refers to
a manner of performance. In our study we look at the way discourse presentation
is conducted. Under this we consider the medium used in transmitting the
message and the participation in discourse. We also consider the modality
(format or form) of the message.
(a)
Medium.
This refers
to the means of communication. We have two major media; speech and writing
which have remarkable stylistic differences between them. Spoken discourse is
spontaneous because you can transmit the message without preparation. Written
discourse is non-spontaneous because it needs preparation before delivering the
message.
Sometimes
language is spoken in order to be written like in dictation, lectures, etc.
Also language can be written in order to be spoken as in radio, TV.
(b)
Participation
This is the
act of communication that gives rise to varieties. When one person speaks and
others listen we term it as monologue as in official meetings,
sermons etc, and dialogue is used when communication involves more than one
person as in discussions, interviews and normal conversations. These two differ
greatly in their styles.
(c)
Modality
It refers to
the specifically labelled forms of message which are organized in a specific
format and use special linguistic forms. It refers to graphology i.e.
paragraphing, capitalization, punctuation, etc. This differ depending on the
channel one decides to use e.g. newspaper, post card, letter, memo, C.V,
telegram, advertisement, speech, etc.
3.
TENOR OF
DISCOURSE
It refers to the
variation of language depending on the relationship between the user and the
addressee. In other words it refers to the level of formality of a particular
language. It can be formal, neutral or informal. The user will have to use the
style that is appropriate when communicating with a person of a certain status.
4.
STYLE
Style
can generally be defined as a particular distinctive way of doing something. (In
this case - the particular way of using the language). Or
Style is a deliberate variation of the
language used by a speaker to meet certain communicative needs in a given
situation. Style, as
deviation from a norm, is a concept that is used traditionally in literary
stylistics, regarding literary language as more deviant than nonliterary
language use.
Take for example the
following expressions which express the same fact but they vary in formality.
My father has deceased to join the heavenly
choir.
My father has passed away.
My father has died.
My dad has died.
My old man just kicked the bucket.
Linguist (Joos) identified five levels of style namely;
i.
Frozen style;
ii.
Formal style
iii.
Consultative style;
iv.
Casual style and
v.
Intimate style.
These five levels of
formality are analogous/comparable to the way we dress;
Frozen
- tailcoat, formal - suit, consultative - jacket and trousers, casual - leisure
wear, intimate - pajamas (night dresses).
FROZEN
STYLE
This is a style in which
language is used to preserve certain beauty (aesthetics) or to show reverence
(high respect). The writing is done in
the absence of the reader and words are frozen into unchangeable patterns so as
to maintain a certain order. Words are frozen and preserved by the society for
use in circumstances calling for them. That is to say it uses expressions that
are no longer in day to day use.
These include;
Ø Ceremonial statements, e.g. I
baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.
Ø Hymns and prayers. E.g. Church hymns and
the Lord’s Prayer.
Ø Oaths. E.g. in church or
court, or swearing ceremonies.
Ø Proverbs idioms and other sayings.
Ø National anthem, school songs, etc
FORMAL
STYLE
·
Is a variety of language that is accepted in
serious speech or writing.
·
It is characterised by the use of common core English,
formal vocabulary and grammar. The use of long and complex sentences (with
coordinate and subordinate clauses) which are mostly passivised. No slangs are
used and speakers tend to be very impersonal by avoiding personal style and use
the subject ‘it’.
E.g. It
was proposed that..............
It was found out that .................. formal
Compare
We proposed
that.................
I found out that ................... informal
·
It is used for restricted affairs such as
academic affairs, legal matters, typical public writing (e.g. formal letters), official
business communication, reports, etc.
CONSULTATIVE
STYLE.
·
It is associated with conversation between
people who are not familiar with each other and for discussion of serious
matters like classroom discussion. Here the main purpose is to communicate.
·
It is characterised by the use of polite
language and employs words such as ‘would’, ‘could’, “should”. It also uses the
common core vocabulary.
E.g. Sorry Madam, could you repeat the last
point please?
Excuse me sir! Somebody wants to talk to you.
CASUAL
STYLE
·
Casual is a style mostly used in conversation
among familiar friends. It is characterised by informal features. Some
grammatical words are ellipted / dropped.
E.g. Where
to? Instead of “where are you going?”
“To
the lab.” Instead of “I’m going to
the laboratory.”
·
Casual and intimate are almost similar to the
extent that sometimes one can hardly dichotomize the two.
·
It includes colloquial and profane words
E.g. What the fuck are you doing there?
Bullshit! Where on earth did he go?
·
Contracted form is also common.
I don’t know. We’ve to go now. Ok I’ll tell you
don worry
·
It makes use of first names of people only,
E.g. Samson preached today. Instead of Sir Samson Mwita preached today.
INTIMATE
STYLE.
·
This is a style used by people who have a very
close relationship. It consists of very casual vocabulary and sound. Sometimes
the vocabulary carries the meaning derived from a shared experience. E.g. I
will refer to Jakaya M. Kikwete as “Hon. President” but his wife calls
him “My
dear”, or “My Sweet”, “My baby” Lovie, sweetheart etc.
·
It is said that it is even possible for one to
predict the feelings of another or what the other has to say.
MARKERS OF STYLE
These are linguistic
features that are used in a text to differentiate it from others and enable us
to recognise its style. The variation of one group of language to another is
found at linguistic levels (stylistics significant features).
There
are five linguistic levels.
LINGUISTIC LEVELS
|
||||
Graphological or
graphitic level
|
Phonological or
phonetic level
|
Lexical level
|
Grammatical or
structural
Level
|
Semantic level.
|
1.
GRAPHOLOGICAL/GRAPHETIC
LEVEL.
It is the
study of the features of the words. They include:
·
Punctuation, capitalization, underlining,
paragraphing,
Italicisation,
etc
·
Use of diagrams, pictures, symbols, e.g. H2O
for water.
·
Size of words, (small, medium, large), bolding,
colouring, etc
·
Bracketing of additional information.
·
Use of references (figures 45.3 or Pg no 56 etc)
·
Use of numbers (numbering,) listing, letters of
alphabet, bullets, etc.
·
Abbreviations.
2.
PHONOLOGICAL
/ PHONETIC LEVEL.
It studies
the patterns of sound in a text. It involves the following.
·
Use of rhythm, rhyme, and pitch movement.
·
Intonation, (in written form it can be shown by capitalizing
or italicizing)
·
Onomatopoeic features,
·
Pronunciation of words etc.
3.
LEXICAL
LEVEL.
This shows
the formality of the language. How formal the language used is. It involves,
·
Collocation, (the way words fit together,)
·
Reduplication, (tip-top, tick-tock)
·
Clipping, (phone, mic, )
·
Blending,( Motel, Heliport)
·
Acronym, (CCM, CWT)
·
Euphemism, (eg I’m going for short call)
·
Complex words, e.g. hemispherectomy.
·
Hyphenated compounds. E.g. mother-in-law
·
Personification, e.g. tiGO travels with you all
the way.
4.
GRAMMATICAL/STRUCTURAL
LEVEL.
This deals
with grammatical rules/aspects of a text. These include;
·
Sentence analysis, length of sentences (long and
complex sentences.), type of sentences, etc
·
Choice of tense, incomplete or ungrammatical sentences,
·
Clauses and phrases used e.g. subordinate or
coordinate clauses.
·
Repetition, rhetorical questions etc.
·
SVOCA arrangement.
·
Ellipsis, the use of tag questions, hesitations,
etc
5.
SEMANTIC
LEVEL.
This deals
with meaning aspect of a text.
·
Figures of speech as similes, metaphors, irony, euphemism,
proverbs, etc.
·
Ambiguity,
Reasons for using such features
·
To capture attention, and attract
readers/listeners
·
For emphasis,
·
To persuade,
·
For illustration,
·
To economize the space.
1.
SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE
(TECHNICAL LANGUAGE)
This is the kind of language used in the
scientific domain or in scientific documents. It is found in academic
discipline like Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Geography, Psychology, Physiology,
etc. It is normally understood by scientists and focuses on facts rather than
opinions because the results of scientific discovery have to be universal. As a
result it usually avoids the use of personal language and usually adopts the
passive structure.
E.g. the experiment was conducted ...and it was
discovered that ... so a conclusion can be drawn that...
Graphological
features of scientific language.
Ø It makes
frequent use of diagrams, figures, graphs, charts, maps, tables, etc. E.g.
figure 1.2, or table 1.1
Ø It also uses
chemical symbols, formulae, like H2O, H2SO4,
=mass (g) also m1 =E1
Molar mass (g/mol) m2 E2
Ø The use of
numbers, and good arrangement as in
i.
Problem identification
ii.
Hypothesis formulation
iii.
Data collection
iv.
Data analysis
v.
Data discussion and presentation
vi.
Conclusion
Ø Clear
headings and subheadings.
Ø
Capitalization
and Bracketing are also common as in this equation 4OHˉ(aq) 2H2O(l)+O2(g)+4eˉ
Ø Italicisation
is also commonly used as in.
V2-V1
t2-t2
Ø Colouring is
used especially in diagrams, pictures and tables for illustration,
Ø Use of
abbreviation as in (R.A.M) for Relative Atomic Mass. 23 g/mol, (IUPAC), etc.
Ø There is
frequent use of punctuation marks like apostrophe as in Avogadro’s constant, Newton’s Law, Archimedes’s principle.
Grammatical
features of Scientific language.
Ø Complex
sentences with lots of post-modification and well completed sentences for
clarity.
E.g. Faraday’s
2nd law of electrolysis
=when the same quantity of electricity is passed
through solutions of different electrolytes, the mass of a substance liberated
or deposited at the electrodes is directly proportional to the chemical
equivalent of the substance.
Ø Use o passive
constructions.
The experiment was conducted and the results
obtained indicated that...
e.g. Rust is formed when oxygen gas, iron and
moisture ...
Ø Simple past
tense in reports is common.
It was discovered that...
The experiment was conducted in the laboratory
to find out ... it took place...
Ø Use of simple
present to express universal truths/facts.
E.g. The sun rises in the East and sets in the West.
Water freezes at 0o C and boils at
100o C
Ø Use of
principles, laws and theories.
E.g. the
principle of conservation of energy states that =energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but it can be changed from one form to another.
Ø Use of
impersonal language.
It makes
frequent use of “it” rather than I, We, You etc. as in
It was concluded that when water is heated up to
100oC it turns to vapour.
Lexical
features
Ø It makes use
of specialised scientific jargons/terms.
These
include; sodium, methylhexane,
dimethylpentane,
Ø Borrowing is
also common especially from Greek and Latin, as the words Biology (bio=logus), zoology, botany,
Ø Turning/changing
concrete nouns into abstract nouns. This is common when a scientist has
discovered something, as in Lamarckism,
Darwinism, etc
Ø Use of
complex words e.g. dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Ø Use of
scientific blending, clipping, and acronyms.
E.g. lab. (labolatory), OP (operating Room), zoo
(zoology) IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.) DDT.(
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
EXERCISE
Study the following text then;
a. State the
province And Show the stylistic features used
b. State two
reasons for using those features.
During the reaction,
3315.20 cm3 of the gas produced was collected at S.T.P. If there was excess charcoal in
the reaction mixture, what was the mass of lead oxide in the combustion tube? (Molar
volume of at S.T.P=22.4dm3)
2.
LEGAL
LANGUAGE (LANGUAGE OF LAW)
This is the language used in the
study of laws or in legal documents. It is used in courts and other legal
documents like contracts, constitutions, memoranda, policies, summonses, Acts,
copyrights, wills, etc. This language tends to be conservative (does not change
easily) and should be very clear to avoid ambiguity. It is designed for reading
rather than speaking and is mostly understood by lawyers themselves.
Graphological features.
Ø Division into
sections, such as Part I, Part II, Part III etc
Ø Numbering/listing
system;
Ø Clear
paragraphing and simple punctuation, to avoid ambiguity.
Ø Headings and
sub headings.
Ø National coat
of arms is sometimes used for state legal documents.
Ø Bracketing of
sections and articles.
Grammatical features
Ø
Use
of very long complex sentences with subordinate clauses.
Ø It makes
frequent use of coordinators, yet, and, or, but,
Ø Frequent use
of modifications of nouns. See examples
above.
Ø Sometimes
there is the use of small letters at the beginning of the sentence when
clarifying the main article.
Ø Also there is
frequent use of capital letters in the middle of a sentence. As in the example above.
Ø To avoid
ambiguity, there is almost no use of pronouns; instead the subject (real name)
is repeated several times.
Ø There is the
use of normal SVOCA arrangement.
Ø The use of
past tense is also common. This is common in court proceedings when reporting
or giving witness to the event under judgement.
Ø The use of
simple present tense and future time in declarations. As in above and below examples;
Ø Clarification
of terms used in a document in legal definition;
E.g. This contract is signed on this 14th
day of August 2015 between Mr. Samson Marwa who will be known as employer on
oneside and Mr Mwita Chacha who will be known as employee on the other side. Or
Lexical
and semantic features
Ø Use of
Archaic words/phrases to make clarification.
E.g. hereby, herein, hereto, whereas, etc
Ø Complex
prepositions, E.g. in respect of, in
accordance with, in ties of, on the ground that, etc
Ø There is a
rare use of adjectives.
Ø Use of
abstract nouns. E.g. declaration,
proposal, case, conditions, agreement,
Ø The use of
legal terms (verbs and nouns) like sustained,
objection, overruled, prosecutor, deem,
require, accept, agree /agreement, issue, state, declare/declaration, propose/ proposal,
defendant, complaint, commence/commencement.
Ø The use of
Latin words, like declaration, de nova,
mutatis mutandis, inter alia, judicial, prosequi,
Ø There is no
use of euphemisms, metaphor, sayings, proverbs, etc. Everything has to be made
clear to avoid ambiguity.
Phonological Features
These are especially
common in court proceedings where it is possible to here, A BAM! On the table to end the session or the word cooooooourt! To
signal the beginning of the session.
3.
RELIGIOUS
LANGUAGE
This is the language
used in church in the Christian religion. But it should be born in mind that
every religion has a language style that differentiates it from the ordinary
language of everyday use. This has the following features.
Graphological
features.
Ø Capitalization
of the word God (and the pronouns referring to God) to differentiate them from
other gods, and the word LORD when referring to God, or holy entities like Holy
Bible.
Ø Arrangement
into short lines like poetry. Especially poetic books like psalms, job,
proverbs, and lamentations.
Ø Numbering.
The bible is written in Chapters and verses which are numbered to ease the
reading or referencing. E.g. John 3:16
Ø Some bibles
have subheadings which are bolded. E.g. The Prodigal son
Ø Use of
italics for additional information. This also shows some of the verses that are
not realised in the same way across different versions or those which were
added by biblical compilers. E.g. The LORD is
my shepherd.
Ø Use of
footnotes to show additional information and synonymous verses in some verses
and headers to show the book name.
Grammatical
features
Ø Relative
clauses are very common.
e.g. For the
woman who has a husband is
bound....(Rom7:2)
For everyone who asks receives, and he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it will be opened. (Matt 7:8)
Ø The use of
vocative phrases and imperatives. Vocatives are the words that name the
addressee.
Ø Oh! My God! Heal my mom!
Ø Hear Oh LORD when I cry with my voice, (Psalm 26:7)
Ø Redeem Israel, O God, out of all their troubles!
(Psalm 25:22)
Ø The use of
appositive phrases/clauses as a way of praising God. Appositive phrases are
noun phrases that are used to modify other nouns. This is common in prayers.
o
As in; LORD
God, Our heavenly King...
o
Jesus Christ,
the son of God...
o
God Almighty,
the creator of heaven and earth...
Ø There is also
the use of very long and complex sentences. As in John 3:16 For God so loved the word that he gave us his only begotten
son that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have everlasting life.
Ø There is also
the use of parallel structures
Praise the LORD from the heavens;
Praise him in the heights
Praise him all his angels;
Praise him all his hosts
Praise him sun and ... etc Psalms 148
Lexical
features
Ø The use of
archaic words which can be subcategorised into the following;
o
The use of old forms of suffixes like eth, est,
or th.
Eg sayth the Lord, when He cometh,
o
The use of outdated personal pronouns such as thou, thee, thine, ye, thy, etc. E.g. Honour
thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the
LORD thy God giveth thee.
Ø Verbs of
middle English such as spake for
spoke, hath for has.
Ø There is the
use of special religious/spiritual terms like JEHOVAH, Angles, devil, Lucifer, sacrament, baptism, communion, hell, Jerusalem, hallelujah,
amen, etc
Ø The use of
Hebrew words is also common. As the names referring to God such as JEHOVAH-JIRE,
JEHOVAH-SHALOM, JEHOVAH-ELSHADDAI, JEHOVAH-ROHI, JEHOVAH-SHAMMA, Eli Eli Lama sabachthani?, Maran atha etc.
Semantic
features
Ø There is the
use of parables, proverbs, idioms, metaphorical expressions, similes, and
euphemisms. E.g. The LORD is my shepherd.
The sinner may be called the lost sheep.
Ø Non Literal
meaning or Connotative meaning is also common. In the language of religion
words don’t always mean what they mean at the surface level. Some words have metaphorical meanings while
others require prophetic interpretation. E.g. “The Lamb of God” means “Jesus”,
“bread of life” means “the word of God” “beast” means kingdom etc.
Ø Religious
language is ambiguous. Most expressions have more than one possible
interpretation. That may also explain why there are many denominations though
they use the same Bible.
Phonological
features
Ø There is the
use of high pitch especially in preaching or singing.
Ø Rhyme, Rhythm
and beats are also common in church hymnals and songs.
4.
LANGUAGE OF
JOURNALISM
(News Paper Reporting)
This is the kind of
language used by the media. In written form it is commonly seen in newspapers,
newsletters, magazines etc. In this discussion our focus will be the language
of newspaper reporting.
Graphological
features,
Ø Bolding, Colouring, underlining,
the headlines to attract attention E.g. Magufuli,
the next President
Ø Use of
pictures for evidence and cartoons for comic effect.
Ø Large font
size for headlines to capture attention.
Ø Division in
columns to economise the space.
Ø Italics
especially when mentioning the name of the Newspaper. E.g. The president has
praised Mwananchi Newspaper for its
contribution....
Ø Punctuation
marks are common. E.g. Quotation marks are used to show the direct quotations.
Ø Arrangement
in short paragraphs which sometimes consist of only one sentence.
Grammatical
features
Ø The use of
long and complex sentences. This is done to achieve what the journalists call
W5H, who, what, where, when, why and how.
E.g.
At least ten
people have died in a road accident in Chalinze Coastal region, due to a car
crash that involved a fast moving Noah with Reg T667BVC coming from
Dar-es-Salaam to Morogoro against a Truck with Reg no T 367 BDX that was on the
way to Dar-es-Salaam yesterday.
Ø Simple
present tense is used in headlines. It makes the report alive. As in these
examples.
“President Hon. J.P. Magufuli addresses the
nation tonight”
“Obama visits Tanzania next week”
“Young Africans SC plays against samba SC today”
Ø Ellipsis/omission
of grammatical words in headlines
E.g. THOUSANDS DIE IN FLOODS instead of “thousands have died in the floods”.
Ø The use of
pre and post modifiers in noun phrases.
E.g. The newly elected Tanzanian President in the
general election that took place on 25th October 2015 from CCM, Hon.
J.P Magufuli will be sworn on Wednesday 4th November 2015.
Ø Passive
structure is also used. As in “at least
two people have been killed in a bomb blast .....”
Ø Direct speech
(quotation) is common for reference to show the validity/genuineness of the
information.
Ø E.g. speaking to the press this morning the
president said “all civilians are advised to...”
Lexical
features
Ø Use of formal
vocabulary. Because it is believed to be a formal type of communication.
Ø The use of
acronym is also common.
E.g. JK warns the opposition parties.
Ø Personification
is common. E.g. Simba to kill Mtibwa
today
Ø Compound
words are also used.
Semantic
features.
Ø Ambiguity is
common. This is done purposefully to persuade the reader to buy a newspaper or
to continue listening. E.g. Bunge on fire today (one may think that
the Parliamentary building has caught on fire or there is a hot issue to be
discussed.) Yanga kills Simba. One
may think that Yanga has literally killed samba players or defeated them in a
football match.
5.
LANGUAGE OF
PUBLIC SPEAKING
A public speech/speaking (sometimes termed as oratory/oration) is an
act of performing a presentation directly to a live audience in a structured,
manner to inform, influence or entertain them. It is a form of address meant to
convey one’s thoughts or opinions, share information or spread awareness among
a large number of people.
A good speech
has clarity of thought and expression, accuracy of facts and an unbiased view
of issues.
This is a very broad category and covers activities from sermons, lectures and
formal speeches.
However there is a difference between
spoken speech and written speech (read speech).
Stylistic features of public speaking.
Ø Heading,
Ø Greetings/salutations
in respect to the protocol
Ø Very long
embedded and complex sentences. E.g. Martin Luther’s speech “I Have a Dream”
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today!
Ø Speech
markers are also used, firstly, secondly,
in addition to that, moreover, You are all aware of, Allow me to say, On behalf of,
Besides, Nevertheless, Last but not least, Lastly, Finally, To conclude etc
Ø Structural
parallelism is common.
Go
back to Mississippi,
go
back to Alabama,
go
back to South Carolina,
go
back to Georgia,
go
back to Louisiana,
go
back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities,
Ø Special
lexical items may be used for special audience. E.g. young, adult, political
rally, economists,
Ø Proverbs,
sayings, idioms and euphemisms may also be used.
Ø Figurative
language is very common; similes,
metaphors, personification, allusion, etc. These are very effective devices
for making the speech live, effective, attractive and appealing to the
listeners of the speech. Like this simile in Dr. Luther’s speech.
No,
no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until “justice rolls
down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.”
Ø The use of
rhetorical question, attention getting devices such as tag questions, e.g.
who’ll save us, who’ll help us, who’ll solve our problems? It is us and our children. Isn’t
it?
Ø
Quotations from prominent people (scholars)
Ø Conclusion
“Free at last! Free at last!
Thank God Almighty, we are free at
last.”
Ø It should
avoid ambiguity because the audience might have people of different abilities.
Ø The voice
quality should be clear with manageable pauses to allow the audience to digest
the message.(in spoken speech)
Ø Onomatopoeic
words can also be used.
6.
LANGUAGE OF
ADVERTISEMENT
This is the type of language used to
promote sales of services or product and is found in newspapers, magazines,
radio, film, television, notice boards, billboards, posters etc.
Advertisement is a form of marketing strategy used to persuade, and
encourage the audience to make a business contact between the buyer and the
seller. It can also aim at encouraging the customers to continue using a
particular product or making a new product known to the customers/public, i.e.
to look for a new market and promoting the sale of products and services.
Advertisements can be categorised into Display and Classified Advertisements.
A good advertisement should be simple, humorous, emotional, memorable, legible,
and eye catching.
Graphological
features.
Ø Heading/headline.
{it can be short or long)
Ø Colouring,
variation in font size, bolding, capitalization, eg
A HOUSE FOR
SALE
Located at Pugu Kajiungeni 500m from the
tarmac road. Supplied with water,
electricity. Contacts 0765...
Ø A trademark,
address or company logo may be included.
Ø Numbering/bullets
in Listing the services and products offered.
Ø Abbreviations
are used for brevity and economy. E.g. Ltd, Co, CRDB, NBC, etc.
Ø Punctuation
marks are also common features
Ø Pictures,
diagrams of the product may be included.
Ø Misspelling:
there is deliberate misspelling to attract attention.
Grammatical
features
Ø Ungrammatical
sentences to capture attention. E.g. a
big show tonite at Club Billicanas.
Ø Superlative
language, the best you can imagine, next
to none, the cheapest, Vodacom Tanzania’s leading cellular network.
Ø Use of
contracted forms. We’ve.
Ø Imperative
words. E.g. If you like it then crown it,
don’t miss it, come one come all, Pepsi dare for more, make the most of it.
Ø The use of
Comparatives.
Lexical
features
Ø Personification
of products.
E.g. tiGo
travels with you everywhere.
Ø Adjectives of
quality are used; wonderful, beautiful,
terrific, durable, long lasting.
Ø Blending, clipping and coining are commonly
used for products like, Hedex, Airtel, Celtel,
Zantel, phone no.
Ø Abbreviations
are common for brevity and economy.
E.g. NSSF, PSPF, LAPF, tel. No.
Phonological
features
o
Rhythm, Rhyme, Repetition can be used.
Semantic
features
Ø Ambiguity
Ø Figurative
language (figures of speech are used) e.g.
Simba cement strong as a lion.
Foma gold
makes your cloths as white as snow.
Ø Proverbs,
idioms, and sayings.
7.
LANGUAGE OF
CONVERSATION
This is the language we use on daily basis
to exchange information or views which can be formal or informal. However
informal language/speech dominates most of our conversations.
It
can be found in both written (as in informal letters) and spoken forms although
primarily it is meant for conversation. Most of the time conversation style is
non-formal and is used in intimate or casual situations.
Graphological
features
The written
conversations have the following Graphological features.
Ø Hesitation
gaps (dots or dashes) e.g. Well...I, I wish to....go there on.....may be
Thursday.
Ø Italics,
bolding, bracketing.
Ø Dialogue
format.
Ø Punctuation
marks like Exclamation marks, question marks, quotation marks, colon, etc
Syntactical
features.
Ø Interjections
are common.
Oh my
goodness! What beautiful car!
Ø Contracted
forms. I’ll be there..., We’ve finished, They won’t understand.
Ø Attention-getting
devices. Look, listen, you see, you know, by the way, well, come on...
Ø Hesitations,
gap fillers. Eerrr..., mmhh..., oh...
Ø Simple
sentences, e.g. let’s go,
Ø Shortened or
minor sentences, see you, I’ll be back, told you?
Ø Questions
with short answers
E.g. QN: Do
you know me?
AN: Not really.
QN: Where to?
AN: Library.
Ø Question tags.
We are leaving today, aren’t we?
You know well
that I love you, don’t you?
Ø Incomplete
sentences. (This can also be due to interruption)
E.g. As I was
talking to him...guess what...let nobody cheat you.
Ø Sentences may
begin with a coordinating or subordinating conjunction. E.g. And where did he go?
But I don’t understand what’s wrong with him
nowadays.
Because of his money, then he thinks he can.......
Ø Repetition, e.g.
I regret, I really regret...
Ø Randomness of
the subject matter because language of conversation in spontaneous.
Ø Grammatical
errors and mistakes are common.
Lexical
features
Ø It avoids
specialised jargons and makes use of everyday vocabularies (popular language).
Ø There is
ambiguity. That’s the big one.
Ø Colloquial
expressions and idioms are common.
o
Hi! What’s up!
o
What the hell
are you talking about?
o
Hey guys!
Hurry up!
o
Come up with
something I may understand,
o
He just
kicked the bucket this morning.
Ø Lexical
exaggeration is common.
E.g. When
it’s so hot. We are going to melt here.
Or it’s freezing here (in cold
moments)
Phonological
features
Ø Onomatopoeic
words are used, especially laughs and cries but also whistling, coughing,
clearing the throat etc. Ha!
ha! Shiiiiiiii!
Ø Dialectical pronunciation. Dis for this, dat for that, tin for
thing etc.
ASSIGNMENT.
Study the following texts and state (a) The Province (b) Stylistic
features of each.
1. All intellectual property rights, including copyright in this
publication, except for those attributed to named sources, are owned by the
author(s) of this research memorandum. No part of this publication may be
copied or transmitted in any form without the prior written consent from the
author(s).
2. 11Verily,
verily, I say unto thee, We speak that we do know, and testify that we have
seen; and ye receive not our witness.12If I have told you earthly
things, and ye believe not, how shall ye believe, if I tell you of heavenly
things? 16For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten
Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting
life.
COMMUNICATION
IN ENGLISH
THE
CONCEPT OF COMMONUCATION
Communication is the exchange of ideas,
information, etc between two or more people. It is also the process of
transferring information, ideas, emotions, skills, etc, by means of symbols, works,
pictures, figures, and graphs.
Also communication is the activity of
conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or
information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing or behaviour.
Etymologically, the word communication
originated from a Latin word ‘communicare’ which means ‘to make
common’. That is to say when the idea you have in your mind resembles the idea
I have in my mind we have communicated; we have created a common understanding.
Diagrammatically it can be shown in this way.
The shaded
part shows that some understanding has taken place.
In communication absolute or
complete understanding between two individuals can never be achieved because
each human being is a unique individual in terms of experience, attitudes,
values, background, and perception.
Kochler & Sisco view Communication as a
complex interacting process involving shared assumptions and unspoken
agreements, feedback and verification between the sender and the receiver.
Communication is also defined as the
transfer of information and understanding from one person to another. It is a
bridge of meaning among people so that they can share what they feel and know.
Communication
can be categorised as Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication. Verbal
communication involves words (language) spoken or written.
This is the common means of communication used
by human beings. While non verbal communication involves the use of alternative
ways other than words. These include signs, facial expressions, body language, etc.
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Scholars have
suggested different models through which communication process may be carried
out. However the following elements are
key to any understanding of the communication process.
Encoder
(sender/source of information)
Message. (content/information=what
is being communicated)
Channel, (the medium
through which the message is transmitted) it can be a letter, post card, a
speech, phone call, radio, Tv, books, telegram, telefax, internet. Etc.
Decoder (Receiver=for
whom is the message intended, who interprets the message)
Feedback. (The
outcome/response of the message back to the source.
The
communication process begins with the sender,
in other words the encoder who sees the need to communicate thoughts, feelings,
anxiety, orders, advices etc. On the other end of the communication channel
there is a receiver in other words
the decoder who receives the message.
Communication
is a two way process.
RECEIVER/ENCODER
|
SENDER/ ENCODER
|
MESSAGE
|
CHANNEL
MEDIUM
|
/
MEDIUM
FEEDBACK
|
A person who
receives the message is expected to react to the message by sending back the
feedback. When he/she sends thee feedback he/she in turn becomes the encoder.
SIX STAGES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS.
A two way
communication takes six stages to be accomplished.
1) The idea is developed in the mind of the sender.
The
sender could be a writer or a speaker depending on whether his/her
communication is written or oral.
2) The idea is encoded into linguistic symbols, normally
words or sometimes graphics or and pictures which express the sender’s message
for the receiver to understand as intended and responds accordingly. The
message could be verbal or non-verbal.
3) The idea is transmitted to the desired
destination- the receiver. The sender has to decide on how to send the
message. E.g. Written channel (words, graphic, symbols, etc) or oral channel
(oral words). In this case the choice of medium and channel is influenced much
by the interrelationship of sender and receiver. If the sender needs immediate feedback, then
oral channel would be the best alternative. If the message contains some
figures, and calculations the, a written medium would be the best option.
4)
The
idea/message must be received by the intended receiver.
5)
The
idea/message must be decoded or interpreted according to the receiver’s
experiences.
6) The receiver sends feedback to the sender based on the
correct interpretation of the symbols.
The entire exchange of information
takes place within an environment that may include much interference that
hinders effective communication.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
The communication barriers are the
interferences that take place between the sender and the receiver. They entail
forces or things that hinder the message to reach the intended destinations
effectively. When the message fails to reach the intended receiver, it is
always supposed that some communication barrier caused the communication
breakdown in the process.
Types of Communication Barriers
(A)
Personal Barriers
These are
communication interferences that arise from human, emotions, values and
limitations. These are most common barriers in work situation including poor
listening habits, incomplete feedback, silence etc.
(B)
Physical
Barriers
These are environmental
factors that can reduce or prevent the sending and receiving of messages. Such
physical interference include distance, distracting noise, and the breakdown of
communication media such as telephone, radio, Television etc..
(C)
Semantic
barriers
These arise
from limitations in the symbols (words) with which we communicate. Words are
our main form of communication but they have different meanings that are often
misunderstood. The sender might use difficult, new or ambiguous word. Semantic
barrier can arise due to vocabulary deficiencies. Most English speakers are
familiar with 30,000 to 40,000 words out of 600,000 words in English language, however
only about 10,000 words are used by speakers of English.
This would not have created any problem
if all the English speakers were familiar with and used the same 10,000 to
40,000 words. The range of the active vocabulary of the sender may include a
large number of words not within the active vocabulary of the receiver.
(D)
Psychological
barriers.
This occurs
in the mind of the listener / reader who may be thinking of or picturing
something else while the communicator is communicating to him/her. The barrier
can be worry, anger, hunger, fear, hatred, stress etc. For example on a day
when things are wrong at home a person’s written or oral communication at the
office may sound harsh. It’s likewise when things are fine; someone’s emotional
condition may be under control thus effective communication.
LETTER WRITING
There are two major
types of letters;
(a)
Personal/friendly/informal
letter.
(b)
Business/formal/official
letter.
PERSONAL/FRIENDLY/ INFORMAL LETTER
A friendly/informal
letter is written to relatives, parents or familiar friends. Because of the
relationship between the addressee and the writer, even the language tends to
be informal in nature.
Stylistic
Features of Informal Letter.
i.
One address;
that is, the sender’s address on the top right hand side.
ii.
The date below
the sender’s address.
iii.
Salutation, which
can be; Dear Pendo, Hi Pendo, or Hello Pendo‟.
iv.
Introduction of
the letter.
v.
The content
containing the information /message you are communicating.
vi.
The ending,
with; Yours’, Your friend, It’s me, love, Yours affectionate, In love, etc.
vii.
Sender’s name or signature.
viii.
Punctuations marks can be used
ix.
The use of personal language is common. It can
express the feelings and emotions of the writer. E.g. You have driven me crazy, The first time I saw you, you stole my heart
away.
x.
Use of colloquial/casual/informal language like
honey, sweetheart, mummy, daddy, hi,
xi.
The use of slangs, e.g. tsup! I wanna tell you sth, I’m gonna visit
you...
xii.
Ungrammatical language can be employed. E.g.
someone may write “luv” for “love”,
xiii.
Contracted form is common. E.g. I’m, I’ve,
We’ll, I don’t.
xiv.
The letter can be as long as the writer pleases.
xv.
Incomplete sentences can be used. Eg you know
what...
BUSINESS/OFFICIAL/FORMAL LETTER.
F
|
ormal letters include business transaction letters like job
application, order letters, letter of adjustment or complaint, editorial
letters, requisitions, acceptance letters, confirmation letters, payment
request, debt reminders and many others. All business letters have the same
format. There are two addresses, the language used is formal the body is brief,
and the tone is official.
Stylistic
Features of Formal Letter
a) Brevity; It should be brief to capture the intended message. That
is to say only the necessary words are written.
b) Clarity; The letter should contain all the relevant information and
written in a clear form.
c) Courtesy: The letter should be polite and diplomatic without rude
words.
PARTS OF A FORMAL LETTER
1.
Sender’s address.
This appears at the top right of the letter. Although it is
necessary to punctuate the letter, in modern writing punctuation are not used.
Sender’s address helps the receiver/addressee when replying the letter. NOTE: Your name is not part of sender’s
address.
2.
Date.
It goes below the sender’s address and can be abbreviated or
written out in full. This helps to know whether the letter has reached on time
or not. There are different ways of writing the date. The one you choose is
largely a matter of personal preferences
22.4.2015.
22/4/2015.
2015, April 22nd.
22nd,April 2015.
April 22nd, 2015
2015, 22nd April.
3.
Recipient’s address
It appears at the left below the date line. It should
include the title of the recipient and the post office box. E.g.
The Headmistress,
Busegwe Girls High School
P.O.Box 1515
Musoma
Some formal letters may need to pass under forwarded
signatures. In this case the recipient’s address will be the first on the left
hand side followed by the addresses of the forwarders from superior to less
superior with the abbreviation U.F.S. separating the addresses.
4.
Salutation
If you know the person’s name it’s better to use Dear
Mr./Mrs./Dr/Ms/Prof………If not use Dear Sir/Madam. Your letter will be received
more favourably if you address the person by his/her name. So try to find out
their names.
5.
RE: Heading
This is a brief statement explaining your reason for writing
your reason for writing the letter. It should be six words or less. It is
usually bolded and/or underlined.
E.g.: RE:
APPLICATION FOR A POST OF A SECRETARY.
6.
Body of your letter
Application letters should be brief so keep your sentences
short and to the point. Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a new
idea into your letter. End with a short sentence that anticipates a response of
the addressee and your readiness to appear for an interview. E.g. I look
forward to hearing from you soon.
I look forward to an early affirmative response from your
side for a chance to appear for an interview.
7.
Closing/ending.
You sign off your letter by writing;
Yours faithfully, if you don’t know the person’s name.
Yours sincerely, if you have included the person’s name.
However, in modern letters the words “thanks” and “regards”
can be used.
8. Signature
Put your signature above your name. If you are typing your
letter make sure you leave enough space for you to fill in a signature.
9.
Sender’s name.
Close your letter by writing/typing out your name in full.
10.
The use
of formal vocabulary and polite language like I would like to..., would you...,
thanks in advance...,
11.
Official
titles such as manager, director, headmistress,
12.
The use
of grammatically correct sentences.
13.
Impersonal
language is used. It should not reveal the feelings of the writer even when the
writer knows the addressee personally. E.g. It is said...,
FORMATS OF JOB APPLICATION LETTER
Business
letters may appear in two formats namely;
i)
Modified
block format
ii)
Full
block format
In the modified block format, the heading, closing and signature
are aligned along the right margin. Paragraphs are indedted.
in full block format all the elements are aligned along
the left margin and the paragraphs are not indented.
AN
EXAMPLE OF A JOB APPLICATION LETTER
BUSEGWE GIRLS HIGH
SCHOOL
P. O Box 1515
MUSOMA
19th April
2015
HEADMISTRESS,
BUSEGWE GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O. BOX.1515
MUSOMA .
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: APPLICATION FOR A TEACHING JOB AS
ENGLISH TEACHER.
In response to your advertisement heard on radio free Africa on 22nd
April that you are looking for an English teacher, I would like to submit my
application.
I am a young male Tanzanian graduate aged 28 with a Bachelor of Arts
with Education degree from the University of Dodoma. I graduated in 2012
leaving with an upper second class degree specializing in English and
Literature. I would like to apply for a teaching job at your school on a
permanent or contract basis, for the subjects mentioned above.
I am interested in working with your school, because I believe it will
provide me with a good atmosphere to develop my potentials and utilize my
abilities to the fullest. I am certainly sure that I am well experienced and
qualified to shoulder all the responsibilities I am likely to be given, in
order to meet the expectations of your institution, since I am young,
energetic, smart, hardworking and confident fellow.
If I am given a chance to serve you
as English / Literature teacher, I am sure to give you the fullest satisfaction
out of my hard work, enthusiasm, experience and sincerity. Further details
regarding my qualification, experience and other particulars are given in the
enclosed bio-data.(CV).
I look forward to an early affirmative
response from your side, for a chance to present my candidature in person and
appear for an interview at your convenience.
Yours
faithfully,
Mwl. Samson M Marwa.
Samples
of openings of application letters.
1. I am writing to apply
for the post of Personal Secretary to the Public Relation Officer advertised in
“THE TIMES” of July 10th……………….
2. I would like to apply
for the post of English teacher advertised on “Radio One” on 23rd
March .....................
3. In response to your
advertisement in yesterday’s “DAILY NEWS” I am writing to apply for the post of
Assistant to the works Manager ……….
4. With reference to the
advertisement heard on Radio Free Africa on 27th of July 2015, I
would like to apply for the post of Computer programmer …………
5. I am writing to apply
for the above post which was advertised on your website www.udom.ac.tz on 2nd of
February 2014.
6. I am writing to apply
for the post of Security guard advertised in the yesterday’s “MWANANCHI” and I
am enclosing a copy of my CV as requested.
NOTE
The end of your letter
should correspond to its beginning.
SALUTATION
|
CLOSING/ENDING
|
CONTENT
|
Dear Sir/Madam
|
Yours faithfully
Yours truly
|
Formal relationship
(not friendly/very
formal)
|
Dear Mr Mwita
Dear Madam Dorah
|
Yours sincerely
(because you mentioned the name)
|
Semi-formal
(friendly atmosphere)
|
THE
BODY OF YOUR LETTER
It is important to
understand the skills in writing application letters. If your letter is badly
written you might not get the job you are applying for.
Here are things to note.
1. It’s
important to show where and when you saw an advertisement inviting
applications.
2. It’s
important to give the following information.
Age, sex, nationality,
marital status, educational qualification, experience, reasons for applying and
promises of loyal service (very brief), readiness for interview, referees and
enclosed testimonials (CV and certificates).
WRITING CURRICULUM
VITAE (CV) /RÉSUMÉ
This
is a written record of your education and the jobs you have done, that you send
when you are applying for a job. A well-written, well-produced, appropriate
CV/résumé is vital for getting you to the interview stage for job.
This
is a very important document to be attached to your application letter because
it sells you to your employer a forehand before he/she sees you in person. It
also helps your employer to know how to treat you if he decides to offer you
the job. So the skills for writing a CV are as much important as the skills for
the application letter.
A
CV must include among other things your personal particulars, educational
qualification, working experience, other skills, experiences, interests,
hobbies, the referees, etc it can be long enough depending on someone’s
education and working profile but some scholars propose that it should not be
longer than two pages if possible. It is also advisable to present yourself
positively and accurately.
Make
your CV attractive and easy to read: use capitals, bold type, spacing and
underlining and don’t send a photo unless asked to.
COMPONENTS OF A CV
a. PERSONAL PARTICULARS
Here you talk
something about you in brief. Things to include are as follows though it is not
binding that all these elements must appear in your CV.
a)
Surname.
b)
Other names (as they appear in your academic
certificates)
c)
Sex (male/female)
d) Age / Date of
birth (Year of birth alone is also acceptable)
e)
Marital status(single/Married)
f)
Occupation
(your current job if any)
g)
Education (the highest level reached eg BA-ED
hons)
h)
Year of graduation
i)
Nationality (Tanzanian)
j)
Religion (Christian/Muslim)
k)
Languages (fluent in ……)
l)
Contact address (including phone numbers and
e-mail address if any)
b. EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION/BACKGROUND/HISTORY
State your education
history showing the schools/colleges you have attended. The common convention
is that which begins from highest level to lowest. (From most recent to the
oldest) E.g. From University to Primary although some authors suggest that we
omit primary school. E.g.
*YEAR
|
*Institution and
qualification/awards
|
2011-2014
|
University of Dodoma
(UDOM) Bachelor of Arts with Education. Second class (BA-ED)
|
2009-2011
|
Mwenge High School.
Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE)
|
2005-2008
|
Mogabiri Secondary
School. Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE)
|
2001-2007
|
Kenyamanyori Primary
school. Primary School Leaving Certificate (PSLC)
|
* You
can omit the titles
It
can alternatively be arranged as follows
*YEAR
|
*Institution
|
*qualification/awards
|
2011-2014
|
University of Dodoma
(UDOM)
|
Bachelor of Arts with
Education. Second class (BA-ED)
|
2009-2011
|
Mwenge High School.
|
Advanced Certificate
of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE)
|
2005-2008
|
Mogabiri Secondary
School.
|
Certificate of
Secondary Education Examination (CSEE)
|
2001-2007
|
Kenyamanyori Primary
school.
|
Primary School Leaving
Certificate (PSLC)
|
c. WORKING EXPERIENCE
This is also arranged just as much the same way as we
arrange the education history. The difference comes in that here we don’t use
qualification but rather position you held. It is also advisable that you say
the duties you were doing, than simply the position.
*YEAR
|
*Institution and Position
|
2011-2014
|
Teaching English in
all classes and assisting as Academic master at Main Greenhill Secondary
school
|
2009-2011
|
Teaching
English/literature and assisting as the head of Language department and
coordinator of English club and also assisted in school drama production at
Mwenge High School.
|
2005-2008
|
Teaching English
subject and coordinating the language department and later appointed as a
Second master at Mogabiri Secondary School.
|
d. OTHER EXERIENCES/INTERESTS/SKILLS/ HOBBIES ETC
Here you add other experiences, skills, interests and all
the potentials you have whether academic or non-academic but which in one way
or another may add value to your job. Some people separate skills with
interests. These include,
a. Leadership,
b. Computer
knowledge
c. Driving
skills, entrepreneurship skills,
d. Hobbies;
singing, chatting, reading etc
e. Interests in
Community services and volunteering spirit.
f.
Etc
e. REFEREES
These are people who can
give confirmatory remarks regarding the information you have given. They can be
your former heads of schools or your former bosses. Get them informed when you
use them as referees. Give their names, titles, contact address, and phone
number.
A sample
of a CV.
CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)
PERSONAL PARTICULARS
Surname
: Marwa
Other names
: Samson Mwita
Nationality
: Tanzanian
Education
: Bachelor degree (BA-ED)
Religion
: Christian (Seventh-Day Adventist)
Marital status
: Married
Languages
: Fluent in English, Kiswahili and Kurya
Contacts
: P.O.BOX 11050
DAR-ES-SALAAM
0765656800/0712504704
Email-samwiterson@gmail.com
EDUCATION BACKGROUND
AND QUALIFICATIONS
YEAR INSTITUTION AND AWARD
2009-2012 :University of Dodoma Bachelor of Arts with
Education (BA-ED)- Upper second 4.2
GPA)
2006-2008 :Mwenge High school advanced Certificate of
Secondary Education Examination. ACSEE=DIV 1-4points)
2002-2005 :Mogabiri Secondary School Certificate of
Secondary Education Examination CSEE =Div 3 -15 points)
1995-2001 :Kenyamanyori P/School Primary School Leaving
Certificate (PSLC)
WORKING EXPERIENCE
YEAR INSTITUTION AND POSITION
2013-
2014 Maroroni secondary School (English
teacher, assistant academic master head of language department, School
secretary)
2012-2013 Main Grenhill Secondary school. (English
& Kiswahili teacher)
OTHER EXPERIENCES, INTERESTS AND SKILLS
Ø Computer literacy in
Ms office, Adobe Photoshop, Logo creator, graphics design, etc
Ø Writing educational
and religious materials and participating in community services and church
evangelism.
Ø Entrepreneurship
skills, drawing, blogging, reading, and sharing knowledge.
Ø Interests in
drama both acting and directing. (was a member of the university of Dodoma
theatre group)
REFEREES
Peter Marwa
Headmaster Temeke Adventist Schools
0767526534
0713526534
Mr Werema James
Senior Academic Master
Mtoni Secondary School
0769075600
OFFICIAL MEMORANDUM (MEMO)
This is an official
document used to communicate information within an organization or at work
place. It can be written to inform of a meeting, introduction of a new
employee, information about transfer or promotion and demotion of a certain
employee etc.
Stylistic
Features of a Memo
a. It can be
written by the boss to the employee, or vice versa, or an employee to a fellow
employee.
b. It is very
brief and direct to the point (topic)
c. Usually it is
not more than a page.
d. It is usually
written on a piece of paper.
e. It operates
within an organisation.
f.
It shows the writer and the recipient.
g. All writings
must begin from the left margin.
FORMAT OF A MEMO
It has the
following sections
a. “TO’ section
showing the receiver of the memo.
b. “FROM”
section showing the name of the sender.
c. “DATE”
section showing when the memo was written.
d. “SUBJECT
HEADING” section showing what the memo is about.
e. “MESSAGE”
section containing the message delivered.
f.
“CONCLUSION” section showing what to be done,
when and by whom.
g. SIGNATURE”
section (optional)
EXAMPLE OF A MEMO
SAMWITERSON CO. LTD.
P.O.BOX 11050 DSM
TO:
Samson M Marwa, The managing Derector
FROM:
Nuru Athuman.
DATE: 23rd
Nov 2015
SUBJECT: Termination
of my job contract.
I
am writing to inform you of my intention to terminate my job contract with
effect from 1st December 2015. I appreciate the good time i spent
working with you since I have gained enough experience and created a network of
friends. I have got a scholarship to further my studies in U.K. next year and i
would like to make earlier arrangement for the trip. So you can make
arrangements for the replacement.
Thanks
once again for your cooperation.
LETTERS
TO THE EDITOR
Another type of formal letters is letters to the editor of
news papers or magazines. They address issues or respond to articles previously
written. They are often written with the following purposes.
1. To complain about something
2. To support an idea or a project.
3. To give opinions about something.
4. To give advice on something.
If you want your letter to be published you should be timely
and respond within two or three days of the event or article. Short, concise
letters are likely to be published than long ones that go round and round. Most
people read shorter letters first and later perhaps read the longer ones.
Some
guidelines.
a. State the argument you are responding to, as briefly as
possible in the introduction of your letter.
b. Stick to a single subject. Deal with one subject per letter.
c. Do not be abusive. Editors tend to discard letters
containing personal attack.
d. Your letter should be logically organized.
i.
Introduction;
explain the argument you are opposing or supporting.
ii.
Statement
of your position.
iii.
Provide
evidence.
iv.
Close
with a short restatement of your position or a pity comment.
e. Use facts, figures, and expert testimony whenever possible.
f.
Read and
do thorough research before you accuse anybody of anything.
g. Proofread your letter carefully for errors in spellings,
punctuation, and grammar. Newspapers will always edit to correct these mistakes
but your letter is likely to be published if it is ‘clean’ to begin with.
h. Don’t mail it the same day it is written. Write, edit and
proofread it and then put it aside until the next day. Re-reading your letter
in a fresh light often helps you to spot errors in reasoning, stilted language
and the like.
i.
Try to
view your letter from the reader’s perspective. Will the argument make sense to
someone without a special background on this issue? Did you use technical terms
that are not familiar to the average reader?
j.
Always
include your name, title, address, phone number and signature. This information
may not be published but they may use it to verify that you wrote the letter.
THE
FORMAT OF EDITORIAL LETTER
COMPONENTS OF EDITORIAL LETTER
I.
The name
and address of the receiver
II.
Salutation
III.
Subject/short
heading
IV.
The main
body
V.
The
ending
Example
of Editorial letter.
Editor,
Mwananchi Newspaper,
P.O.Box 2020
Tabata-Dar-es-Salaam
Dear editor,
WATER PROBLEM AT BUSEGWE VILLAGE.
I would like to take
this opportunity to appreciate the good work your Newspaper has been doing in
keeping the public informed and educated on different socio-political and
economic matters.
Although I am a regular reader of
Mwananchi newspaper, it is my first time to appear in this column to express my
deep concerns on the problem of water in our village Busegwe. Busegwe village
is located just a few kilometres from Lake Victoria south of Musoma municipal.
Nevertheless, since independence the problem of water has never been solved.
In my opinion, if really the leaders
were serious enough about the welfare of their citizens, there is no way they
would fail to supply piped water to the village which is located just few
kilometres from the largest lake in Africa.
I would like to advice our MP his
excellence hon. N.E. Mkono to stand up for this and see to it that water is
supplied to our Village or else we are not going to re-elect him in the forth
coming general election.
Yours faithfully,
Jamila Michael
A peasant
POBOX 1515
BUSEGWE-MUSOMA
E-mail; jamiam@gmail.com
Contacts 0772000333
Assignment
Imagine that all last year form four of Busegwe G.H.S have
been selected to join form five in different government high schools. Write a
letter to the editor of “Daily News” P. O. Box 2021 Dar-es-Salaam,
congratulating them for their achievement. Use your name and school address.
ALL THE BEST IN YOUR STYLISTICS LIFE
Says Sir S.M
THE BEST WAY TO LEARN IS TO LEARN FROM THE BEST.
Bravo, you have explained the topic well, keep it up
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