PARTS OF SPEECH - NOUNS by Samson Mwita

NOUNS.

A traditional understanding of a noun has been to say that a noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing, an idea, or a quality of mind. But more comprehensively a word is said to be a noun if;

a)      It is a head of a noun phrase.

My lovely caring mother.

b)      It is preceded by a determiner,

Time the time before the time times you.

c)      It is inflected to show possession/plural.

John’s book, Chanel’s wedding, books, trees

d)      It is a name of something.

A house, a table, idea, God, a tree.

KINDS OF NOUNS

Nouns are categorised into different types

A.  PROPER NOUNS AND COMMON NOUNS

PROPER NOUNS.

These are nouns that are used to name particular/unique person, place or things. These nouns have the following distinctions;

ü  They are usually written with initial capital letter even when they are not at the beginning of a sentence. Tuesday, January, Marwa, Tanzania etc

ü  They do not allow plural inflections except for special references. E.g. In normal cases you cannot say

*Three Josephs have come here today*.*Two Jumas*

However it is possible to have plural inflections in these cases.

When referring to a family in general e.g. The Njogus are travelling to Nairobi today.

We can also use plurals for proper nouns in exceptional cases

There are three Johns in my class.

For three Tuesdays we waited for him but he never returned. (When referring to three weeks)

ü  They are not used with articles except for special cases.

*A Tanzania*, The Marwa*

However it is possible to have articles in unique reference such as,

This is not the Jane I knew three years back.

This is the Tanzania I aspired for.

The words that are used as Proper nouns include

i.     Names of people.

Samson, Mwita, John, Shanella, Mbarga, Julieth, Milca,etc

ii.   Names of places like countries, regions, provinces, streets, villages, continents,

Tanzania, Kenya, United Kingdom, Arusha, Tarime, Mbezi, Africa

iii.   Days of the week

Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday.

iv.  Months of the Year

January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August

v.    Names of Mountains, Rivers, Lakes,

Lake Victoria, Rufiji river, Kilimanjaro mountain,

vi.  Titles of Books, newspapers, journals, Subjects, etc

English, History subject, Mwananchi Newspaper, Think Big, Mwanahalisi, Femina etc.

vii.  Organizations, companies and buildings– International Labour Organization, Red Brigades, United Nations, state house, Quality Plaza, Macinga Complex, Rock City Mall.

viii.Historical Events and holidays, E.g.: World War II, Great Economic Depression, Majimaji War, Valentine Day, Christmas,

COMMON NOUNS

ü  These are ordinary names given in common to every person, or thing of the same class or kind. There is no uniqueness in common nouns. These begin with small letters except when they appear at the beginning of a sentence. They are used with articles and can be inflected to show plural.

ü  E.g. a doctor, a teacher, a child, a chair, a girl, a city, a country, an egg, an anthology etc.

Common nouns are names of people, things, animals and places, etc.

·         People – aunt, boy, butcher, carpenter, cousin, father, girl, lady, man, mother, tailor, woman

·         Things – bicycle, book, car, computer, dress, hammer, key, pencil,  ship, table, vase, wallet

·         Animals – armadillo, baboon, bee, caterpillar, cow, dog, eagle, fish, monkey, pig, snake, turkey,

·         Places – airport, beach, bullring, cemetery, church, country, hospital, library, mall, park, restaurant, zoo

B.   CONCRETE NOUNS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

CONCRETE NOUNS:

ü  These are names of things that can be touched or seen. These are things that exist physically and can be perceived by the senses. E.g.

 Room, chair, book, computer, pen etc

There are countable concrete nouns and uncountable concrete nouns.

v  Countable: teacher (people); valley (place); deer (animal); comb (thing)

v  Uncountable: water (liquid); steam (gas); copper (substance)

ABSTRACT NOUNS:

ü  These are names of things that cannot be seen or touched. They denote a quality, action, state, feelings, events etc. These cannot be understood in a physical sense since they have no shape. E.g.

ü  Liberty, kindness, beauty, childhood, joy, sorrow, death, freedom, love, hatred, admission.

Abstract nouns can be formed from concrete nouns by adding affixes.

Concrete	Abstract	Concrete	Abstract
King	Kingdom	Leader	Leadership
Lord	Lordship	Friend	Friendship
Child	Childhood	Man	Manhood
Mother	Motherhood	Forest	Forestry

C.   COUNTABLE NOUNS AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE NOUNS;

These are names of things that can be counted or divided into singular and plural. These ones cannot stand alone in singular form in a sentence without articles. E.g. bag, book, phone, chair, box, table, child, girl, boy, pen, article, essay, feature, idea, etc. Look at the following sentences:

*Girl is sick. [Incorrect]

A girl is sick [correct]

When using countable nouns it is possible to use these expressions several, a few, many, a large number of, a small number of. These are strictly used with countable nouns.

There were only a few people left when Akwari reached the finish line.

Many girls enjoy reading romantic novels.

There are several books on the shelf.

A large number of locusts invaded our village last year.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

These are names of things that cannot be counted or divided into singular and plural. These ones can stand alone in singular form in a sentence without articles. E.g. oil. Cotton, water, sugar, rubbish, soil, dust, perfume, salt, air, bread, hair, equipment, information, furniture,

Look at the following sentences:

I need to take a small amount of sugar.

They spent much time than expected.

I would prefer a little milk in my tea.

When using uncountable nouns it is possible to use these expressions, a little, much, a large amount of, a small amount of. These are strictly used with uncountable nouns. Look at the sentences above.

The following expressions can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns; some, any, more, a lot of, plenty of. E.g.

	Countable	Uncountable
Some	Some girls are sleeping in the dormitory	You need to drink some water every morning
More	We need more exercises	I need more salt
Any	There are no any oranges left	There is no any milk left in the fridge.
A lot of	We met a lot of elephants on the way	We had a lot of luggage to carry on the way
Plenty of	There are plenty of good people in Tanzania.	There is plenty of rainfall this year.

There are some nouns that are both countable and uncountable depending on the context it is used in a sentence. Such as debate, difference, difficulty, employment, enjoyment etc

ü  There had been much debate on the issue of childcare. [U]

ü  We hold debates every Wednesday. [C]

ü  There isn’t much difference in price between the two computers. [U]

ü  We have our differences, but she's still my sister. [C]

ü  Why don't you settle your differences and be friends again? [C]

ü  There was a difference of opinion over who had won. [C]

ü  I had considerable difficulty (in) persuading her to leave. [U]

ü  The changes were made with surprisingly little difficulty. [U]

ü  We've run into difficulties/difficulty with the new project. [C]

ü  He got into difficulties while swimming and had to be rescued. [C]

D.  COLLECTIVE/MASS NOUNS.

A collective noun is a name used for a number of people, animals or things that we group together and speak of as a whole. For example, a bunch of bananas, a litter of puppies, a flock of sheep, etc. Viewed as a single unit, a group uses a singular verb; regarded as separate members making up the group, it takes a plural verb.

ü  The family is planning an overseas trip. (The family is viewed as a single unit planning and going overseas together, so it takes a singular verb.)

ü  The family are discussing about the plan. (The family members are taking part in the discussion and are no longer considered a single unit, so it uses a plural verb.)

There are special names given to the group of things and persons. So instead of saying “a group of people” we say “a crowd of people”. For example

A group of specialists who give their advice or opinion about something; or a group of people who discuss topics of interest on television or radio is called a panel.

A group of people who are chosen, usually by a larger group, to make decisions or to deal with a particular subject is called a committee.

 A group of people who are elected to make and change the laws of a country is called the Parliament.

Now look at the following mass nouns and learn them by heart.

Mass/collective nouns for people
an army of soldiers a bevy of beauties/girls a band of musicians a band of robbers a board of directors a body of men a bunch of crooks a caravan of gypsies a choir of singers a class of pupils a class of students a company of actors a company of soldiers a congregation of worshippers a crew of sailors a crowd of spectators a crowd of people	a dynasty of kings a galaxy of beautiful women a galaxy of film stars a gang of crooks a gang of labourers a gang of prisoners a gang of robbers a gang of thieves a group of dancers a group of singers a horde of savages a host of angels a line of kings/rulers a mob of rioters a pack of rascals a pack of thieves a party of friends	a patrol of policemen a posse of policemen a regiment of soldiers a staff of employees a staff of servants a staff of teachers a team of players a tribe of natives a troop of scouts a troupe of artistes a troupe of dancers a troupe of performers a party of friends

Mass/collective nouns for creatures
a bevy of quail a brood/flock of chicks/chickens a catch of fish a cloud of flies a cloud of insects a cloud of locusts a colony of gulls a drove of cattle a drove of horses a flight of birds a flight of doves a flight of locusts a flight of swallows a flock of birds a flock of geese a flock of sheep a flock of chickens a gaggle of geese a haul of fish a herd of buffaloes a herd of cattle a herd of deer	a herd of elephants a herd of goats a herd of swine a hive of bees a host of sparrows a kindle of kittens a litter of cubs a litter of piglets a litter of kittens a litter of puppies a menagerie of wild animals a muster of peacocks a nest of ants a nest of mice a nest of rabbits a pack of hounds a pack of wolves a plague of insects a plague of locusts a pride of lions a school of herrings/other small fish	a school of porpoises a school of whales a shoal of fish a skein of wild geese in flight a string of horses a stud of horses a swarm of ants a swarm of bees a swarm of insects a swarm of locusts a team of horses a team of oxen a train of camels a tribe of goats a troop of lions a troop of monkeys a zoo of wild animals
Collective nouns for things
an album of autographs an album of photographs an album of stamps an anthology of poems an archipelago of islands a bale of cotton a bale of wool a basket of fruit a batch of bread a battery of guns a block of flats a book of exercises a book of notes a bouquet of flowers a bowl of rice a bunch of bananas a bunch of flowers a bunch of grapes a bunch of keys a bundle of rags/old clothes a bundle of firewood/sticks a bundle of hay a catalogue of prices/goods a chain of events a chain of mountains a chest of drawers a cloud of dust a clump of bushes a clump of trees a cluster of coconuts a cluster of diamonds a cluster of grapes a cluster of stars a clutch of eggs a collection of coins a collection of curiosities a collection of pictures	a collection of relics a collection of stamps a column of smoke a comb of bananas a compendium of games a constellation of stars a cluster of diamonds a cluster of stars a clutch of eggs a crate of fruit a crop of apples a fall of rain a fall of snow a fleet of motor-cars/taxis a fleet of ships a flight of aeroplanes a flight of steps a forest of trees a galaxy of stars a garland of flowers a glossary of difficult words/phrases a group of islands a grove of trees a hail of bullets a hand of bananas (each a finger) a harvest of wheat/corn a heap of rubbish a heap of ruins a hedge of bushes a heap of stones a layer of soil/dirt a library of books a line of cars a list of names a loaf of bread a mass of ruins/hair a necklace of pearls an outfit of clothes an orchard of fruit trees a pencil of rays	a pack of cards a pack of lies a packet of cigarettes a packet of letters a pair of shoes a pencil of rays a quiver of arrows a range of hills a range of mountains a ream of paper a reel of thread/film a roll of film/cloth a rope of pearls a row of houses a series of events a set of china a set of clubs a set of tools a sheaf of arrows a sheaf of corn a sheaf of grain a sheaf of papers a sheaf of wheat a shower of blows a shower of rain a stack of arms a stack of corn a stack of hay a stack of timber a stack of wood a stock of goods a stock of wood a string of beads a string of pearls a suit of clothes a suite of furniture a suite of rooms a tuft of grass a tuft of hair a wad of currency/notes a wreath of flowers

NUMBER IN NOUNS

Countable nouns can be either singular or plural. A singular noun refers to just one person, animal, thing or place while a plural noun represents more than one person, animal, thing or place. However there is a great deal of variations when it comes to plural formation in English nouns. Most plural nouns have an -s added to their endings. Other plural nouns do not follow this same ending.

THE PLURALS OF NOUNS

By adding -s Singular Plural Singular Plural ant ants lock locks bicycle bicycles magazine magazines cow cows nose noses daughter daughters orange oranges egg eggs picture pictures flower flowers rose roses grape grapes spoonful spoonfuls house houses toy toys jug jugs vase vases king kings well wells By adding -es to nouns ending in –ch, -s, -sh, -ss, and -x Singular Plural Singular Plural beach beaches dish dishes inch inches thrush thrushes match matches boss bosses watch watches dress dresses bus buses glass glasses octopus octopuses kiss kisses syllabus syllabuses box boxes virus viruses fox foxes brush brushes six sixes bush bushes tax Taxes gas gases By adding –s to nouns ending in -o Singular Plural Singular Plural dynamo dynamos studio studios photo photos tattoo tattoos piano pianos torso torsos radio radios trio Trios solo solos zero zeros By adding -–es to nouns ending in -o Singular Plural Singular Plural buffalo buffaloes potato potatoes echo echoes tomato tomatoes hero heroes tornado tornadoes mosquito mosquitoes veto vetoes negro negroes By adding –s or –es to nouns ending in -o Singular Plural Singular Plural banjo banjos/banjoes memento mementos/mementoes archipelago archipelagos/es peccadillo peccadillos/es cargo cargos/cargoes lasso lassos/lassoes mango mango/mangoes indigo Indigos/indigoes motto mottos/mottoes volcano volcanos/volcanoes By changing –y into –ies if a noun ends in a consonant before the -y Singular Plural Singular Plural beauty beauties fairy fairies cherry cherries family families curry curries nappy nappies diary diaries spy spies duty duties theory theories    By adding –s if there is a vowel before the -y Singular Plural Singular Plural chimney chimneys kidney kidneys donkey donkeys monkey monkeys guy guys toy toys jersey jerseys trolley trolleys key keys valley valleys  By changing –f or –fe into –ves Singular Plural Singular Plural calf calves life lives elf elves loaf loaves half halves sheaf sheaves knife knives thief thieves leaf leaves wife wives    By adding –s to nouns ending in –f or –fe Singular Plural Singular Plural chef chef handcuff handcuffs chief chiefs reef reefs cliff cliffs roof roofs giraffe giraffes safe safes gulf gulfs sheriff sheriffs    By adding –s or changing –f into –ves Singular Plural dwarf dwarfs/dwarves handkerchief Handkerchiefs/ves hoof hoofs/hooves scarf scarfs/scarves turf turfs/turves wharf wharfs/wharves By adding –en or –ren Singular Plural Singular Plural ox oxen child children    By changing the vowels Singular Plural Singular Plural axis axes goose geese cactus cacti louse lice crisis crises mouse mice* emporium emporia/emporiums oasis oases fungus fungi/funguses tooth teeth * For computer mouse, the plural is mice or mouses. The plural and singular forms of some nouns are the same advice advice knowledge knowledge aircraft aircraft music music baggage baggage news news cattle cattle offspring offspring cod cod scenery scenery deer deer series series fish fish** sheep sheep furniture furniture species species information information ** More than one fish of the same species. Fishes are the plural of more than one species of fish.

Plural in compound words

Some Principles in the Formation of Plurals in Compound Words.

a.             Pluralize the principal word in that Compound. Murthy (2010)

E.g. mother-in-law = mothers in law (the principal word is mother)

      Paper clip=paper clips (the principal word is clip)

Governor General= governors General

Grants in aid, passersby, booksellers, commanders in chief, step-sons, sons-in-law, etc

‘New York Public Writers Guide’ puts it this way “the most significant word –generally the noun- takes the plural form. The significant word may be at the beginning, middle or the end of the term.

  E.g. Attorneys at law, Bills of fare, chiefs of staff, notaries public, Assistant Attorneys General.   (Harper & Collins 1994:416)

b.         When there is no obvious principle word add -s/-es to the end of the compound

  E.g. forget-me-nots, pack two toothbrushes,  have-nots

c.    When the compound word is in the form of a container (ful) e.g. bucketful, cupful, handful, plateful etc an –s is added at the end to form plural.

 E.g. spoonfuls, cupfuls, handfuls, armfuls,  etc

d.   For hyphenated compounds, the pluralizing –s is usually attached to the element that is actually being pluralized.

ü  Daughters-in-law, step-daughters

ü  Half-moons, passers-by, lookers-on, men-of-war

ü  Mayors-elect

‘The Chicago Manual of Style’ comments that “the hyphenated and open compounds are regularly made plural by the addition of the plural inflection to the element that is subject to change in number” and gives examples like;

ü  Fathers-in-Law,  Doctors of Philosophy, Courts martial

There are nouns that are always plural and take a plural verb.

Jeans, knickers, panties, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, and underpants

Pincers, pliers, scissors, shears, tongs, Clogs, sandals, slippers, and sneakers, Glasses (spectacles), binoculars etc

ü  These trousers are not mine.

ü  Pliers are a handy tool.

ü  My garden shears trim the hedge very well.

ü  My glasses are used only for reading.

"A pair of" can be used with the above plural nouns and take a singular verb.

ü  This pair of purple trousers does not match your yellow jacket.

ü  These knives do not cut well. A new pair of stainless steel scissors is what I need.

Other nouns that are always plural.

Clothes: My clothes need to be washed but I don't have the time.

Earnings: Earnings in the agricultural sector have increased by 5% in the fourth quarter.

ü  Cattle: Cattle are reared for their meat or milk.

ü  Police: Police are charging him with the murder of the princess.

ü  People: People in general are not very approachable. (Peoples when used in the plural (i.e. with '–s') refers to peoples from more than one race or nation, e.g. the peoples of Asia)

ü  Football team: Liverpool are a very successful football team. (But Liverpool is a great city.)

Nouns which are plural in form but take a singular verb

The following plural nouns are used with a singular verb as they are treated as singular:

ü  Athletics, economics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics, mechanics, news, numismatics, measles, mumps, physics, politics and pyrotechnics

ü  Economics: Economics was my favourite subject at school.

ü  News – The good news is that we have all been invited.

ü  Diseases such as mumps, measles, etc: An infectious illness, mumps was common among children.

Measurements and amounts that are considered as a single unit:

ü  One hundred years is a century.

ü  Ten kilometres is a long distance.

ü  Twenty dollars is not enough to buy a good shirt.

ü  Seven days in prison is all he got for shoplifting.

A collective noun can take a singular or a plural verb

The following nouns can be singular or plural. Viewed as a single unit, the noun takes a singular verb; regarded as a group of separate members or parts, it becomes a plural noun used with a plural verb.

ü  The new government has gained more support since taking office.
The Government are determined to keep inflation in check.

ü  The explorers stumbled across a species of plant unknown to science.
Different fish species have been found in the coastal waters of the island

ü  Data indicates that most of the offenders come from broken home.
We will not draw any conclusion until we have looked at all the data.

ü  Statistics is included in this year's Mathematics syllabus.
The statistics tell us the current trend is towards more consumers' spending.

ü  The enemy is calling for a ceasefire.

ü  Security is very tight as the enemy are everywhere.

A collective noun treated as singular uses a singular possessive pronoun; a plural collective noun takes a plural possessive pronoun.

ü  Our team has won its first trophy.

(The singular possessive pronoun is its. The singular possessive pronoun its agrees with the singular collective noun team.)

ü  Our team are deciding on the strategy for their next game. (Plural possessive pronoun: their)

ü  The audience showed its approval by clapping and cheering.
When the curtain came down, the audience began leaving their seats.

ü  The full orchestra led by its new conductor is performing in the city.
The orchestra do not agree to the venue for their next performance.

Two subjects expressed as a single unit and take a singular verb

Time and tide waits for no man.

Bread and jam is what he eats most in the morning.

GENDER IN NOUNS

In English language gender comes in four categories.

a.    Masculine gender. This is a noun which denotes the male sex.

Example; king, man, boy, father, headmaster, lord, tiger, lion

b.    Feminine gender. This is a noun which denotes the female sex.

Example; princess, girl, headmistress, lady, woman, tigress. lioness

c.    Common gender. This is a noun which denotes either sex. Both male and female.

Example; teacher, student, animal, baby, child, parent, orphan

d.    Neuter gender. This is a noun which denotes things without gender, which are neither female nor male.

Example; bus, bread, door, house, computer, school, science, college, car.

EXCEPTIONS.

There are some exceptions to the above rules.

Sometimes lifeless things can be referred to as female or male.

ü  Things that suggest power or dignity are spoken of as if they were masculine. Example Time, winter, Mountains, Sun, Death, summer.

ü  Things that suggest beauty, grace, admiration or gentleness are spoken of as if they are feminine. Spring, moon, liberty, peace, nature, country, ship, charity, mercy, hope, autumn.

ü  On the other hand, we sometimes refer to a cat, dog, horse and even a child as it.

A LIST OF NOUNS IN THEIR FEMININE AND MASCULINE GENDERS

Masculine	Feminine		Masculine	Feminine
Actor	Actress		Hero	Heroine
Author	Authoress		Him	Her
Baron	Baroness		Husband	Wife
Conductor	Conductress		King	Queen
Count	Countess		Lad	Lass
Deacon	Deaconess		Lord	Lady
Duke	Duchess		Male	Female
Emperor	Empress		Man	Woman
Enchanter	Enchantress		Monk	Nun
Giant	Giantess		Mr.	Mrs.
God	Goddess		Nephew	Niece
Heir	Heiress		Papa	Mama
Host	Hostess		Proprietor	Proprietress
Hunter	Huntress		Sir	Madam
Instructor	Instructress		Son	Daughter
Jew	Jewess		Sultan	Sultana
Manager	Manageress		Tutor	governess
Marquis	Marchioness		Uncle	Aunt
Master	Mistress		Widower	Widow
Mayor	Mayoress		Witch-doctor	Witch
Murderer	Murderess		Boar	Sow
Negro	Negress		Buck	Doe
Ogre	Ogress		Bull	Cow
Patron	Patroness		Bullock	Heifer
Poet	Poetess		Cock	Hen
Priest	Priestess		Colt	Filly
Prince	Princess		Cob (swan)	pen
Prophet	Prophetess		Dog	Bitch
Shepherd	Shepherdess		Drake	Duck
Sorcerer	Sorceress		Gander	Goose
Steward	Stewardess		Hart	Doe
Tailor	Seamstress		Hound	Brach
Tiger	Tigress		Mallard	Wild-duck
Traitor	Traitress		Ram	Ewe
Waiter	Waitress		Sire	Dam
Bachelor	Spinster		Stag	Hind
Beau	Belle		Stallion	Mare
Boy	Girl		Steer	Heifer
Brave	Squaw		Billy-goat	Nanny-goat
Bridegroom	Bride		Buck-rabbit	Doe-rabbit
Brother	Sister		Bull-calf	Cow-calf
Don	Donna		Boy scout	Girl-Guide
Earl	Countess		Cock-sparrow	Hen-sparrow
Executor	Executrix		Father-in-law	Mother-in-law
Father	Mother		Grandfather	Grandmother
Friar	Nun		Headmaster	Headmistress
Gentleman	Lady		He-goat	She-goat
Governor	Matron		Landlord	Landlady
He	She		Male-child	Female-child
Manservant	Maidservant		Step-father	Step-mother
Postman	Post woman		Step-son	stepdaughter
Son-in-law	Daughter-n-law		Peacock	Peahen
Czar	Czarina		Jack ass	Jenny ass

AGE IN NOUNS

English nouns have special terms used to describe the parent and the young creatures. The following are some of them;

PARENT AND YOUNG

ADULT (ANIMALS)	YOUNG
bear	cub
boar	piglet, pigling
buck (rabbit)	rack
buffalo	calf
bull (cattle)	calf
bull (elephant)	calf
camel	calf
cat	kitten
cow	calf
deer	fawn
dog	puppy
elephant	calf
fox	cub
giraffe	calf
goat	kid
hippopotamus	calf
horse	foal
kangaroo	joey
leopard	cub
lion	cub
pig	piglet
possum	joey
rat	pup
rhinoceros	calf
seal	pup
sheep	lamb
stallion	foal
tiger	cub
wallaby	joey
wolf	cub
zebra	foal

ADULT (BIRD)	YOUNG
bird	fledgling, nestling
cock	chicken
cock (pigeon)	squab
drake	duckling
eagle	eaglet
gander	gosling
goose	gosling
grouse	poult, cheeper
ostrich	chick
owl	owlet
partridge	poult
pheasant	poult
pigeon	squab
swan	cygnet
turkey	poult
ADULT (INSECTS)	YOUNG
ant	grub
bee	grub
beetle	grub
butterfly	caterpillar
cockroach	nymph
dragonfly	nymph
grasshopper	nymph
housefly	maggot
mosquito	wriggler
moth	caterpillar

ADULT (FISH)	YOUNG
eel	elver
oyster	spat
shark	cub
trout	fry
whale	calf

ADULT (AMPHIBIAN)	YOUNG
frog	tadpole
toad	tadpole
turtle	hatchling

CASE IN NOUNS

Case; a word that indicates whether a noun or a pronoun is used as a subject, object, or indirect object, and a word that is used to address a person or indicate ownership or possession is known as case.

Kinds of cases

1.    Nominative/subjective case

This is a noun or pronoun that is used as the subject of the verb. This answers the question who or what?

Marwa brought the letter.

Knowledge is power

2.    Nominative of addressee

This is a noun that is used to address people with their names.

Come on, Sandra.

Masero,let me tell you the whole story.

Jesca, tell me the truth.

3.    Objective/accusative case

This is a noun or pronoun that is used as an object of the verb. This answers the question whom or what?

I love  Neema

I planted a tree

Also a pronoun or noun used after a preposition is also in the accusative case.

The teacher is angry with me

I usually play with kids

4.    Dative case

This is a noun or pronoun that is used as an indirect object of the verb. This answers the question to whom or for whom?

I gave Janeth a gift.

She bought the kids beautiful toys.

Note: the indirect object must be placed after the verb and before the direct object.

5.    Possessive/genitive case

This is a noun which has an apostrophe and an “s” or a pronoun that indicates possession or ownership. This answers the question whose?

This is Marwa’s car.

Joshua’s bible.

Formation of possessive case

1.      Singular nouns form the possessive by adding an apostrophe (’) and s.  E.g. lion’s tail, president’s speech, the boy’s bag

Note: ‘s’ is omitted when there is a hissing sound:

E.g. For Thomas’ sake, for goodness’ sake

2.      Any plural noun that already ends in‘s’ does not need another‘s’. It needs only an apostrophe (’) e.g.

Dogs’ noses,

Girls’ books’

Teachers’ tables, etc

3.      Irregular nouns that do not have‘s’ ending in plural add both an apostrophe and‘s’. E.g.

Women’s fashion,

Children’s room,

Oxen’s yokes.

4.      Nouns with several words add the possessive ending to the last word.

The minister of education’s speech

The door of Mr. John’s house

Said Salim Bakhresa’s company

NOTE:

Sometimes the possessive form of a noun sounds awkward. This may be the case with nouns of more than one word, for example, The minister of Education, Science and Technology’s speech was interesting. When the possessive form sounds awkward in your speech or writing you can change its form without changing the meaning.

Example;

Awkward: The minister of Education, Science and Technology’s speech was interesting

Smoother: The speech of the minister of Education, Science and Technology was interesting

5.    When you want to show that two or more people own something in common add the possessive ending to the last person’s name.

Samuel and Juma’s shop

Joe & Sam’s motel

6.      Two or more nouns having no relations or owning things individually require separate possessive forms.

Gift’s and Morange’s poems. (each has her own poem)

Samson Mwita’s and Geofrey Mfuru’s classes (each has his own class)

EXERCISE

Check that you know the meaning of the words in the box and then decide which fits best into the sentences below. Machine, quality, organization, instrument, act, substance, device, state, process, container, tool, feeling.  A vat is a large__________ for holding liquids. 2. A stapler is a small _________for putting staples into paper. 3. A stethoscope is an _________that a doctor uses to listen to somebody’s heart and breathing. 4. A chisel is a _________used for shaping wood, stone or metal. 5. A blender is an electric _________for mixing soft food or liquid. 6. Gel is a thick like jelly. 7. Desalination is the_________ of removing salt from sea water. 8. Horror is a _________of great shock, fear or disgust. 9. Wealth is the _________of being rich. 10. Beauty is the _________of being pleasing to the senses or to the mind. 11. A union is an _________of workers that exists to protect their interests. 12. Ambush is the_________ of making a surprise attack on someone

2. Can you find the plural forms of these nouns in the word search below? Some of them are irregular, and some are not. Circle them when you find them..

Life, Video, House, Plate, Potato, Clock, Woman, Jelly, Knee, Milkman, Toy, Child, Kiss, Mouse, Key, Chimney, Loaf.

L	I	V	E	S	G	T	O	Y	S	C	X
T	S	B	W	K	N	E	E	S	O	H	O
U	I	C	H	I	M	N	E	Y	S	I	V
J	E	L	L	I	E	S	B	H	A	L	I
K	E	O	H	O	U	S	E	S	W	D	D
I	F	C	E	R	W	N	E	Z	O	R	E
S	I	K	O	M	E	D	S	R	M	E	O
S	N	S	E	M	Q	E	L	H	E	N	S
E	Q	U	K	Y	T	P	S	M	N	S	I
S	W	L	I	A	S	K	E	F	I	R	A
F	I	C	L	O	A	V	E	S	X	C	T
M	A	P	O	T	A	T	O	E	S	N	E