INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

THE THEORY OF LITERATURE

Meaning of Literature

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here is no single definition that suits the meaning of literature. As a result there have been various attempts to define the term literature. Some of these attempts are;

Literature is the work of art that uses the language creatively to portray the message to the intended audience.

Literature is a work of art that uses the language creatively to express human realities to the society.

Literature is an imaginative work of art that uses language to reflect social realities.

Why is literature said to be an art?

a.     Language use. The language of literature is different from the language of everyday use (normal language). Literature uses figures of speech and words are assigned an extra meaning than what they ordinarily imply. Some words carry literal meaning and others have symbolic meaning. It is therefore advised not to take words for granted in literature. You need to dig a bit deeper before you settle and say this is what it means.

b.    Characters and characterisation. Literature uses real people or other characters that represent real people in the outside world. Inanimate beings may be personified in a way that they represent human qualities and act accordingly. This adds artistic effect to the literary work. (more details are given in subsequent chapters)

c.     Choice and presentation of incidents. Literature is not just a collection of facts and stories to be reported. Incidents in literature are presented in artistic way that makes the audience think that they are actually happening. There is the use of skilful narrative technique like point of view, flashbacks, foreshadowing, suspense, etc all these help the readers to visualise the events as though they are just unfolding before their eyes. (more details are given in subsequent chapters)

Why is literature said to reflect social realities?

Social realities are the things that human beings experience in their daily lives. It is not mandatory that all the incidents discussed in one literary work should be found in one society all the time. Some issues become relevant and exist across time and space and later become obsolete. So the themes that were once relevant in one society may be irrelevant in the same society as time passes by.

 Likewise, the themes that are relevant in one part of the world may be irrelevant at another part of the world. However, there are issues like corruption, classes, humiliation, betrayal, FGM, HIV/AIDS, conflicts, position of women in the society, oppression, exploitation, identity and awareness, effects of European culture on African culture,  etc which are common in African literature.

TYPES OF LITERATURE

There are two major types of literature namely oral and written literature.

ORAL LITERATURE.

This is a type of literature that presents the message through words of mouth. This is the oldest type of literature since it was practised before the invention of writings. Its forms include; Folk tale, tall tale, legends, myths, fables, anecdote, ballads, epics, riddles, sayings (proverbs and idioms). Let us discuss some of them in details.

Anecdote –is a brief story about an interesting, amusing or strange event. Writers tell anecdote or include them in a larger work, to entertain the readers or to make a point.

Epic –is a long narrative poem, about the adventures of a hero, whose actions reflect the ideals and values of a nation or a group. Epics address universal concerns such as good and evil, life and death, and other serious subjects. One of the famous epics in African literature is “The Epic of Sundiata”

Fable- is a brief story or poem usually with animal characters that teaches a lesson or a moral about life. Or is a very brief story in prose or verse that teaches a moral, or a practical lesson about how to get along in life. The moral is usually stated at the end of the fable. E.g. what goes around comes around’ or ‘do unto others what you would have them do unto you.’

Folk tale – is a story composed orally and then passed from person to person by word of mouth. Or it is a simple story that has been passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Folk tales are usually about ordinary people, animals, or occurrences in nature and are usually set in time long past. They originated from people who could neither read nor write. These people entertained one another by telling stories aloud – often dealing with heroes, adventure, magic, or romance. E.g. “why monkeys live in Trees”

Legend – is a widely told story about the past – one that may or may not have a foundation in fact. Or is a story that is handled down from the past and may tell about something that really happened, or someone who really lived. Legends usually mix facts and fictions. Every culture has its own legends that mean its familiar traditional stories.

Myths – is a fictional tale that explains the actions of gods, or heroes, or the cause of natural phenomena (i.e. the origin of elements of nature). Or it is a traditional story about the origins or workings of the world. Some myths explain how certain things came into being; others explain elements of nature or social customs. Myths that explain the origin of earthly life are known as origin myths. They are composed orally and then passed from generation to generation through word of mouth. Because myths have been handled down from generation to generation for a long time their original authors are usually unknown. The characters in myths are usually supernatural beings. Every ancient culture has its own mythology.

Parables - a short story that teaches a moral or spiritual lesson, especially one of those told by Jesus as recorded in the Bible. E.g. the ‘Prodigal son’, ‘the sower’, ‘The Rich man and Lazarus’ etc.

Ballad – is a song-like narrative poem that tells a story, often one dealing with adventure and romance. Most ballads are written in four – six – line stanzas and have regular rhythms and rhyme scheme. A ballad often features a refrain – a regularly repeated line or group of lines at the end of each stanza as in “A freedom Song by M. O Macgoye”. Originally ballads were not written down. They were composed orally and then sung. As these early folk ballads passed from singer to singer they often changed dramatically. Even today modern ballads do not necessarily have four – six – line stanzas and regular rhythms and rhyme scheme. As in The Ballad of the Landlord by Lungston Hughes. A person who sings or writes ballads is called a balladeer

Tall tale -this is an exaggerated far-fetched story that is obviously untrue but is told as though it should be believed. Most tall tells are humorous. As tales are passed on, they often get taller and taller – more and more exaggerated.

WRITTEN LITERATURE.

This is a type of literature that presents the message through/ in written form. This began with the invention of writings. This has two major forms. Fiction and non-fiction

FICTION AND NON-FICTION

NON-FICTION LITERATURE.

This is a kind of literature that deals with factual materials or events. The people written about in non-fictions are real. Literary non fictions are written to be read just the same way as fictions. These include;

Autobiography. This is an account of someone’s life and experiences written by himself/herself. The person may choose to tell about an important event from his/her life or tell the whole life story up to the time when it is written. Forms of autobiography are; personal narratives, journals, memoirs, diaries, letters etc. Autobiographies are almost always written in the first person I. Example; “Gifted Hands” by Ben Carson and “The Narrative of Frederick Douglas: An American Slave. Written by himself.

Biography. This is a story of someone’s life and experiences written by another person. In biographies the author may choose to interview the biographical subject and also gather information from other sources. The subjects of Biographies are often famous people. E.g. Lincoln: A Photo biography. A biographer is one who writes, composes or produces a biography.

Essay. This is a short piece of writing in which the writer shares his/her point of view about a certain subject. Or is a short work of non-fiction that usually deals with a single subject. Essays can be classified as formal and informal, personal or impersonal. A formal essay is highly organised, thoroughly researched, and serious in tone. An informal essay is lighter in tone and usually reflects the writer’s feelings and personality.

Informational articles. These are articles that present factual materials about a specific subject. They appear in newspapers, magazines, and in reference books like Encyclopaedias, almanacs, and atlases.

FORMS OF NON-FICTION.

Nonfiction is broken down into four kinds of writing.

Ø Exposition. This is a writing that explains something or gives information about a topic.

Ø Persuasion or argumentation. This is a writing that attempts to convince you of something by showing you that the statement is true or false.

Ø Description. Is a writing that helps you to form a clear mental picture of something. Writers use specific details such as shapes, tastes, sounds and textures to help you form the picture.

Ø Narration. A writing that tells a story of an event or series of events.

ORGANISATION OF NON-FICTION

There are three parts to most nonfiction writing.

                      i.            Introduction. It tells you the main ideas of what the piece is about. It may also give background material or state a problem.

                      ii.         The body. It develops the main idea through the details that support the main idea.

                   iii.         Conclusion. It shows that the work is ended. The conclusion may restate or summarize the author’s main ideas, it may answer the question raised in the work or it may urge the reader to future actions.

FICTION

It is a kind of literature that deals with non factual materials or events. Characters, setting and events are the product of imaginations from the author. It can be inspired by the actual events or completely made up.

GENRES OF FICTION LITERATURE.

PROSE FICTION.

A prose is any kind of writing that is not poetry or that is not presented in verse form or stanza. It is a specifically imaginative work that includes short stories, novella and novels.

SHORT STORY

This is a story usually about imaginative characters and events that is short enough to be read from the beginning to the end without stopping. It is also a brief work of fiction that can generally be read in one sitting. It usually focuses on one or two main characters that face a single problem or conflict. E.g. The voter by C. Achebe, Ajaiyi and the Witchdoctor by A. Tutuola, Mabala the Farmer by R. Mabala. Etc.

ELEMENTS OF A SHORT STORY.

There are four basic elements of a short story. These are; Setting, plot, characters and theme. Short stories differ from the novel in its treatment of these four elements. The main difference is partly dictated by length. In short stories characters are usually not fully developed and usually centre on one idea. Other minor elements include conflict, point of view, symbolism, flashbacks, fictitious quality etc.

NOVELLA. This is a fiction work that is longer than a short story but shorter than a novel. It is longer than a short story but the characters are not fully developed as in novels. EXAMPLE. Samuel Beckett’s novella First Love. In this episode the unnamed narrator, who spends most of the time lying prostrate on a park bench, begins to feel his privacy threatened by the visitations of a woman to the same bench.

NOVEL is a work of fiction that is longer and more complex than a short story. Or it is a fictional prose usually consisting of more than fifty thousand words. (Probst, et al, 2000).  In novels, setting, plot characters and theme are fully developed in great details. Like a short story the novel has four main elements, setting, plot characters and theme. A person who writes novels is called a novelist E.g. Passed like a shadow by B. Mapalala. The Interview, by P. Ngugi, etc.

DRAMA/PLAY

Is a literary genre that tells a story through actions and dialogue and is written to be performed on stage by actors. Drama has the same elements as those in novels and short stories. i.e. setting, plot characters, theme, climax, conflict, symbolism, etc. An element that is unique to drama is DRAMATIC TECHNIQUE. This includes:

Ø Dialogue. These are the words that the characters speak in a play. It is a conversation between characters. It is the dialogue that reveals the character’s qualities, personality traits, and reactions to other characters.

Ø Soliloquy/monologue. This is a speech made by a character when he/she is alone on stage. Or it is a speech in which a character alone on stage, expresses her thoughts and feelings aloud for the benefit of the audience, often in a revealing way.

Ø Aside. This is a direct address of the audience by a character. The other characters do not hear what is being said.

Ø Stage direction. These are the instructions/notes included in a play/drama which describe how the work is to be performed or staged. They indicate areas of the stage in which actors sit, stand, move, speak, exit, enter, and so on, lighting, music, sound effect, costumes, emotional state, etc.

These are typed in italics and enclosed in the parentheses or brackets.

TYPES OF DRAMA

Tragedy

It is a serious drama/play with a sad ending especially one in which the main character dies. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment. Succeeding events are linked in a cause-and-effect relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion, usually death. E.g. Oedipus the King, by Sophocles.  Julius Caesar by W. Shakespeare, Mfalme Juha by F Topan etc.

A person who writes tragedies for the theatre or an actor in a tragedy is called a tragedian. E.g.   Sophocles, Shakespeare, etc

Comedy

It is a dramatic work that is intended to be funny, humorous and usually ends happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict. To achieve a comic effect sometimes the playwrights use Mistaken identity. Sometimes certain characters are mistaken about their surroundings.  They say or do things that would be appropriate in a different social situation but are inappropriate in their surroundings. The resulting confusion results to a silly series of events. The confusion of characters causes a ridiculous conflict. The climax arrives when the characters learn the truth. E.g. Juliette and Oko or Atangana and Abessolo in Three Suitors One Husband. Other examples of comedies are The trials of Brother Jero and The Lion and the Jewel both by W. Soyinka

An entertainer who makes people laugh by telling jokes and funny stories is called a comedian/comedienne.

Tragic comedy

It is a dramatic work that combines the elements of tragedy and comedy but here the hero/heroine does not end in danger or death. A comic relief is a technique used to achieve this effect. This is a humorous scene that is inserted into a serious work of drama to provide relief from the seriousness felt by the audience.

Melodrama

A play that is full of exciting events and in which the characters and emotions seem too exaggerated to be true/real. It is accompanied with a melody –hence melody drama (melodrama)

Historical drama

This is a type of drama that expresses the history of a particular society but usually contains some elements of tragedy and comedy. E.g. Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi, Kinjeketile by E.Hussein

Other important terms in drama.

v Act. This is a major unit/part of action in a drama or play.

v Scene. This is a smaller section or a subdivision of one act. So a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at one time.

v Costume. The clothes worn by actors in a play or film/movie or worn by somebody to make them look like somebody or something else. E.g. a student, a housemaid, a judge, etc.

v Prop. A small object used by actors, during the performance of a play or in a film/movie

v Audience. Is a group of people sitting in a room, auditorium or in the theatre listening to and watching a performance.

v Theatre. This is a special building or an outdoor area where plays/movies/films and other entertainments are performed.

ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE.

Three are two major types of Elements of Literature namely; Form and Content.

CONTENT

This has the following elements:

THEME

This is a writer’s central idea, concern, or purpose in a literary work. A theme can usually be expressed as a generalization or a general statement about human beings or about life. Although a theme may be directly stated in the text, it is more often presented indirectly. When the theme is presented indirectly the reader must figure out what the theme is by looking carefully at what the work reveals about people or about life. Common themes in literature include classes, poverty, unemployment, oppression, exploitation, corruption, marginalization, hypocrisy, love, identity, betrayal, racial segregation / discrimination, effects of colonialism / neo-colonialism, humiliation position of women in the society. Etc

MESSAGE/MORAL

This refers to the lesson taught by a literary work. A poem, novel, short story or play often suggests a lesson/moral that is not directly stated. The lesson must be drawn by the reader based on the other elements of the work. e.g. 

Ø United we stand, divided we fall.

Ø What goes around comes around.

Ø Do unto others what you would have them do to you

Ø Children should be given the right to education

CONFLICT

A conflict is a struggle between opposing forces.  A conflict is one of the most important elements of stories, novels and plays because it causes the actions. There are two kinds of conflict:

Ø Internal conflict. This takes place within the mind of a character. The character struggles to make decision, take action, or overcome a feeling. For example THONI in “The black hermit” has this kind of conflict that later forces her to commit suicide.

Ø External conflict. This is the one in which the character struggles against some outside forces, such as another person. In this category we can get further subdivisions of conflicts such as, economic conflict (rich vs. poor), political conflict (leaders vs. Citizens), family conflict (among family members), social conflict (one social group vs. Another), cultural conflicts (modernism vs. Traditionalism) etc

RELEVANCE

v This is the applicability of a literary work in contemporary societies. We assess whether or not the author has been successful in addressing the issues that are relevant to our lives currently. That is why we believe that literary works do not develop in a vacuum but they usually address issues in societies they evolve.

v It is interesting however to note that a literary work may not necessarily be relevant across time and across space. In one case, a literary work might be relevant in one society but may be irrelevant in another. In another case, a literary work that was once relevant in one society might be irrelevant in the same society as time passes by. E.g. most literary works that were about struggle for independence in Africa have now fallen out of favour.

FORM

This refers to the structure of a literary work. It has the following elements.

CHARACTERS/CHARACTERIZATION

Characterization is the act of creating and developing a character. It is the way the writer reveals the personality of a character. A Character - Is a person or an animal that takes part in the action of a literary work.

Authors use two major methods of characterization; Direct and Indirect.

Ø Direct Characterization. When using the direct characterization a writer tells the characters’ traits or characteristics. E.g. brave, corrupt, weak etc.

Ø Indirect Characterization. When using indirect characterization a writer depends on the reader to draw conclusions /judgments about the characters’ traits by using the evidence the writer gives:

·       Through the words of the character.

·       Through the description of the character’s look and clothing.

·       Through the description of the character’s feelings and thoughts.

·       Through comments made about him by another character in the story.

·       Through the characters behaviour.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERS.

There are different ways of classifying the characters.

Major/main character and minor character

The main or major character is the one that is the most important in the story, poem or play. Usually the main character appears from the beginning to the end of the story. E.g. Juliette. While a minor character is the one that takes part in the action of a story but is not the focus of attention. These help the main character to accomplish the mission.

Flat character and round character.

Flat character is usually one-sided and often stereotypical. These characters are not well developed. They are introduced more to shed light on the character of the major figure.  While round character on the other hand is fully developed with complete personality and exhibits many traits, - often both faults and virtues. (strengths and weaknesses)  

Dynamic character and static character.

Dynamic character is the one who changes or grows in the course of the story this one is complex and multifaceted like a real person. E.g. Remi in “The Black Hermit”. While a static character is the one who does not change. This one is one-dimensional. Like Mbarga in Three Suitors One Husband.

Protagonist and antagonist.

A protagonist is the main character in a literary work. Often a protagonist is a person but sometimes it can be an animal. An antagonist is a character or a force that is in conflict with the main character or protagonist.

Foil character

This is a character that provides a contrast to another character. A writer uses a foil to accentuate and clarify the distinct qualities of two characters.  The word foil is also used for a thin sheet of shiny metal that is placed beneath a gem to intensify its brilliance.  A character who is a foil, like the metal behind the gem, sets off or intensifies the qualities of another character.

SETTING

The setting of a literary work is the place and time of the action. Stories can be set in the present, past or future. What happens in the story and how characters look and act often depends on the time when the event took place. It may include the year, time of the day, even weather. The place may be a specific country, state, region, community, neighbourhood, building, institution, or at home. Details such as dialects, clothing, customs, and modes of transportation are often used to establish the setting. The setting can be real as in “Passed like a shadow” or imaginary as in Kusadikika.

STYLE

This is the way the writer uses the language. It is also understood as the individual way in which a writer has used the language to express his or her ideas. Style results from diction (word choice), sentence structure and tone. One writer may choose to use many figures of speech another may prefer to use straightforward language with few figures of speech.

POINT OF VIEW

We also look at the point of view. This is the perspective or the vantage point from which the story is told. It is either the narrator outside the story or a character inside the story. Three commonly used points of view are first person, omniscient third person and limited third person.

Ø In the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and refers to himself or herself with the first person pronoun “I”.

Ø In omniscient third-person point of view, the narrator knows and tells about what each character feels and thinks.

Ø In limited third-person point of view the narrator relates the inner thoughts and feelings of only one character and everything is viewed from this character’s perspective.

PLOT

This is a sequence/arrangement of events in a literary work. In most novels, dramas, short stories and narrative poems the plot involves both the characters and a central conflict. Plot may be chronological or flashback.

         A chronological plot is one that the incidents are arranged in the order they occur. The plot usually begins with EXPOSITION that introduces the setting, the characters and the basic situation. This is followed by the introduction of the central conflict. The conflict increases during the RISING ACTION until it reaches the highest point of interest or suspense, THE CLIMAX. The climax is followed by the FALLING ACTION or the end of the conflict. These are events that during the falling action make up the RESOLUTION or Denouement.

                                   CLIMAX

 

                                                               

                                                                  RESOLUTION

EXPOSITION    conflict

                          Introduced

The plot can also employ a flashback. This is an interruption of the current action of a plot to show events that happened at an earlier time. It breaks the normal forward movement of a narrative. Although flashbacks often appear in the middle of the story it can also be placed at the beginning. They give background information the audience needs to understand in order to understand the present action.

          Foreshadowing can also be used. This is the use of clues/hints to suggest events that will occur later in the plot. Foreshadowing is used to build suspense or anxiety in the reader or viewer. E.g. the character prepares his gun and hides it somewhere; this may foretell violence later in the story.          

   

LANGUAGE USE/DICTION

This refers to the writer’s or speaker’s choice of words. People use different types of words depending on the audience they are addressing, the subject they are discussing and the effect they are trying to produce. Diction is an essential element of a writer’s style and has a major effect on the tone of the piece of writing.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

This is writing or speech that is not meant to be taken literally. One has to dig deeper and uncover the underlying meaning. The many types of figurative language are known as figures of speech.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Definition:

·       Figure of Speech is a word or group of words that describes one thing in terms of another and is not meant to be understood as literally true.

·       A figure of speech is a word or phrase that departs from everyday literal language for the sake of comparison, emphasis, clarity, or freshness.

·        Also known as, rhetorical figure, metaphorical language/ literary devices

Used well, figures of speech greatly enhance your fiction, and can be a very economical way of getting an image or a point across, but used incorrectly, they will confuse the reader. The special emphasis is typically accomplished by the user's conscious deviation from the strict literal sense of a word, or from the more commonly used form of word order or sentence construction. From ancient times to the present, such figurative locutions have been extensively employed by orators and writers to strengthen and embellish their styles of speech and composition. A number of the more widely used figures of speech, some of which are also called tropes, follow.

1)   Metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things without using the words “like or as”. A metaphor suggests that one thing is another thing, or is equal to another thing. It uses a word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or object in place of another word or phrase for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two. Metaphors create vivid descriptions with few words, as the subject of the comparison takes on the qualities of the thing with which it is compared.

Ø 'He was a lion in the fight'.

In the biblical Book of Psalms, the writer speaks of God's law as

Ø “A light to his feet and a lamp to his path.”

Ø “The LORD is my shepherd”

2)   A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things and uses the words "like," "as," "than" or "resembles". Or Simile is specific comparison by means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or objects.  Similes make descriptions vivid by comparing their subjects with known events or things. Effective similes help readers visualize what is being described. Examples,

Ø As cool as a cucumber',

Ø 'As white as snow',

Ø 'Life is just like an ice-cream, enjoy it before it melts',

Ø “Christianity shone like a beacon in the black night of paganism”

3)   Irony: It is the expression of ideas which are exactly opposite to the implied meaning.

Or Irony is a disagreement or incongruity between what is said and what is understood, or what is expected and what actually occurs. Irony can be used intentionally or can happen unintentionally. Authors can use irony to make their audience stop and think about what has just been said, or to emphasize a central idea. The audience's role in realizing the difference between what is said and what is normal or expected is essential to the successful use of irony.

Ø 'A student of psychology going insane', 

Ø 'A bank lends you money provided you show that it's not needed'

Ø Or the warning found on every cigarette pack, 'Smoking is injurious to health' is an irony!

There are three scenarios in which irony occurs.

a.     Verbal irony is when the intended meaning of the statement or work is different (often the opposite of) what the statement or work literary says. For Example, Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People is ironically used since Dr. Stockman who is declared an enemy, is in really sense, and is a friend of the people.

b.    Situational Irony occurs when what happens is contrary to what is expected; or the actual outcome of a situation is the opposite of what is expected. For example

Ø The son of the English teacher fails the English Exam.

Ø The daughter of a rich merchant is expelled from school for lack of school fees of 20,000/=.

c.     Dramatic Irony occurs when events or facts not known to the character on stage in a fictional work, are known to another character and the audience or reader. E.g. Oedipus the King.

4)   Personification: It is a representation of abstract ideas or inanimate objects as having human attributes or qualities. Or Personification is the representation of inanimate objects or abstract ideas as living beings. Personification connects readers with the object that is personified. Personification can make descriptions of non-human entities more vivid, or can help readers understand, sympathize with, or react emotionally to non-human characters.

'Death laid its icy hands on kings',

“Necessity is the mother of invention

“the mountains cried, the valleys wept, and the hills wailed all mourning the death of Nyerere.

5)   Apostrophe: It is a direct address to the dead or an inanimate object creating an emotional surge. In Apostrophe, an actor turns from the audience, or a writer from readers, to address a person who usually is either absent or deceased, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea. As in John Donne’s “Death Be Not Proud”

Ø 'Caesar, only if you were alive'

Ø 'O stone, O might, O heart of man-made God, Thou art the emblem of our hope',

6)   Rhetorical question is the act of asking questions not to gain information but just for emphasis. No answer, in fact, is expected by the speaker. The device is illustrated in the following series of sentences:

“Did you help me when I needed help? Did you once offer to intercede in my behalf? Did you do anything to lessen my load?”

7)   Hyperbole/overstatement is a figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for emphasis or for humorous effect. In exaggeration a person or thing is depicted as being better or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually the case. It is, used often to ridicule, create humour or any drastic emotional appeal.

Ø 'The waves rose as high as the mountains,'

Ø 'I am so hungry that I can eat a whole cow'

Ø 'She wept and wept until there was a sea of tears'.

8)   Litotes/ understatement: It is an understated expression when the actual idea to be expressed is quite significant. It is like downplaying an idea when it seems to be the best possible course of action or description. Statements such as,

Ø 'I was not feeling unhappy”.  Meaning I was feeling happy

Ø “The English poet Thomas Gray showed no inconsiderable powers as a prose writer, “meaning that Gray was in fact a very good prose writer

Ø I am not unmindful- meaning I mind

9)   Euphemism, this is the substitution of an offensive/unpleasant term or phrase by the one that has pleasant associations, as in the use of “lavatory” or “rest room” for “toilet,” and “pass away” for “die.”

10)          Metonymy is a figure of speech that associates the name of one thing with that of something else. This is a word that substitutes for an object, the name of an attribute or concept associated to that object. The use of ‘crown’ for ‘king’ or for the government ruled by a king is an example of a metonym.

a.     “We waited hopelessly for two sunsets”

“Sunsets” here implies two days,

b.    “He has a good name in our society.” Or,

“They spoilt his name.”  “Name” refers to reputation

c.     “A press conference by the “Statehouse”. Here, statehouse refers to the officials of the Statehouse who will be holding the press conference.

A metonym is not necessarily one word. As in a hotel -“Room 44 needs a bottle of champagne”  “Room 44” here refers to the customer who is in that room.

d.    “The hostess kept a good table,” when “good food” is implied.

11)       Synecdoche: is a figure of speech in which the whole is represented by a part or a part by the whole is called as synecdoche. Example

'He has several mouths to feed'. Here mouths represent people.

“50 head of cattle; “head” is used to mean whole animals,

“The president's administration contained the best “brains” in the country; “brains” is used for intellectually brilliant persons.

12) Onomatopoeia, imitation of natural sounds by words. Examples in English are the italicized words in the phrases

“The humming bee,”

“The cackling hen,”

“The whizzing arrow,”

“The buzzing saw.”

The Hissing snake,

 The Splashing water,

 The Bang of a door.

13)                      Oxymoron: This is a figure of speech which includes words or ideas opposite in meaning placed one after the other. Oxymoron combines two seemingly contradictory or incongruous words.

o   'True lies',

o   'Open secret',

o   'Pretty ugly face',

o   'Feeling alone in a  crowd’,

o   Living deaths,

o   Dear wounds,

o   Fair storms,

o   Silent noise

o   Freezing fires

o   Pain for pleasure

o   Clearly confused

o   Cruel kindness

o   Deafening silence

o   Only choice

o   Random order

o   Alone together

o   Awfully good

o   Dark light

o   Light darkness

o   Appear invisible

o   Goodbye reception.

o   Growing smaller

o   True myth

o   Unpopular celebrity

o   Worthless gold

o   Sad joy

o   Sweet agony

o   Daydream in the night

14)             Paradox, this is a figure of speech which includes a statement or sentiment that appears contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Simply put it is a statement that seems to contradict itself but is, nevertheless, true.  These statements or assertions, according to logic, cannot be true, yet the figure links them in a way that creates a new meaning, one that defies logic but works on situation. Example of paradox is found in Martin Luther’s speech “I Have a Dream”

“..The Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land”

In the above sentence, logically speaking, one cannot be in exile while he is still in his own land, as the true meaning of the word exile is. But the situation described, is the one that makes us see as if the Negros are in exile, since they have nothing to enjoy in their own land.

15)       Climax, It is the arrangement of ideas in an increasing order of their importance. It emphasizes the meaning in a clear and effective way. Or it is the arrangement of words, clauses, or sentences in the order of their importance, the least forcible coming first and the others rising in power until the last, as in the following sentences:

Ø “It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen; it is a crime to scourge him; it is almost parricide to kill him; but to crucify him—what shall I say of this?”

Ø 'He came, he saw, he conquered, 'her village, her state, her nation were her pride',

Ø 'Eat, drink and sleep' and so on.

16)                      Anticlimax is a sequence of ideas that abruptly diminish in dignity or importance at the end of a sentence or passage, generally for satirical effect. The following sentence contains an illustration of anticlimax:

“Among the great achievements of Benito Mussolini's regime were the revival of a strong national consciousness, the expansion of the Italian Empire, and the running of the trains on time.”

17)                      Antithesis is a juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences contrasted or opposed in meaning in such a way as to give emphasis to contrasting ideas. An example of antithesis is the following line by the English poet Alexander Pope: “To err is human, to forgive divine.” “The LORD gave and the LORD has taken away.

18)                      Conceit, it is an elaborate, extended and sometimes surprising comparison between things that, at first sight, do not have much in common. It is also defined as an elaborate, often extravagant metaphor or simile making an analogy between totally dissimilar things. The term originally meant “concept” or “idea.” The use of conceits is especially characteristic of 17th-century English metaphysical poetry. An example occurs in the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” by the English poet John Donne, in which two lovers' souls are compared to the legs of drawing compasses.

19)                      Allusion is a literary device in which the writer or speaker refers either directly or indirectly to a famous person, event, place or thing in history, religion, mythology, politics, sports, science or to a work of art or literature. Allusion connects the content of a text with the larger world. Allusion calls to mind the ideas and emotions associated with a well-known event or published work. Those ideas and emotions then contribute to what the author conveys. As in Martin Luther’s speech

"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."

20)                      Parallel structure /parallelism / Parallel construction is a repetition of the same pattern of words or phrases within a sentence or passage to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. Parallel structure helps to organize ideas, making a text or speech easier to understand. Parallel structure can also create a satisfying rhythm in the language an author uses.  In this literary device, the idea to be stated is repeated in some other form to emphasize the articulation.

'She cried, she wept but he was unmoved',

'Show me your strength, your stamina, your energy only where it is needed'

21)    Anaphora Also called epanaphora, the repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive phrases for rhetorical or poetic effect, as in Lincoln's

"We cannot dedicate-

We cannot consecrate-

We cannot hallow this ground"

I am a true Acoli

I am not a half-caste

I am not a slave girl

22) Imagery This is a figure of speech which creates mental pictures that appeal to readers, five senses.  Writers use sensory details to make readers imagine how things look, feel, smell, sound and taste. There are different types of images depending on the five senses.

o   Visual image- this is an image of sight e.g.

ü Greater than the Rift-Valley;

ü Camera film to light,  coils of the greatest python

ü Stronger than the blows of the sea

ü When the hurricane is at its height.

o   Organic image -this is an image of feeling

ü Dying in agony

ü More painful than the yell

o   Audio image – this is an image of sound

ü The yell of a woman

ü I plead the cry of the nation

ü The screams of a man

o   Kinetic image -this is an image of motion.

ü Is faster than camera film

ü But as slow as tropism

ü I declare running Better than walking

o   Tactile image - this is an image of touch

ü As it falls on the seemingly soft soil

ü Standing hard and ready..

o   Olfactory image – this is an image of smell.

ü a stinking room

o   Gustatory image. This is an Image of taste

ü In search of sweetness

o   Thermal image this is an image of heat.

23)              Anadiplosis; the repetition in which the last expression of one statement becomes the first expression in the following statement. As in the poem “Africa” by David Diop

The blood of your sweat

The sweat of your work

The work of your slavery

The slavery of your children

24)                      Symbolism is a literary device that uses one object to stand for something else or to mean something else. Actions can also be symbolic, such as washing hands to indicate non-involvement.  Some symbols are universal, with generally accepted meanings, such as a crown to mean superiority or the colour red to mean danger. Symbols, especially specific ones, often mean more than one thing.

Sunrise symbolizes the beginning of the struggle and sunset symbolizes the end of the struggle in the poem “Sunrise”

25)                      Pun - It is a humorous play on two or more meanings of the same word or on two different words with the same sound. It is also understood as a play on the multiple meanings of the word or on two words that sound alike but have different meanings. It uses words that have similar or identical sounds but very different meanings. Quite often it is used to pass a witty remark or bring about a sarcastic effect. Examples are,

"It is better to have loved a short person and lost, than never to have loved A TALL."

'I KNEAD the dough so that I can eat',

Another good pun is found in the last but one line of Shakespeare’s “When My Love Swears That She Is Made of Truth.” He says;

‘Therefore, I LIE with her and she with me’ Shakespeare Sonnet 138

26)                      Allegory is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.

Thus an allegory is a story with two levels of meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. A more modern example of allegory is George Orwell’s Animal Farm, which on the surface level is about a group of animals who take over their farm but on the deeper level is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the shortcomings of the Communism.

27)                      Anastrophe: Also known as inversion, it is a sentence or a poetic expression which reverses or changes the order of words for greater emphasis. The following are examples of anastrophe.

'Ten thousand saw I at a glance' instead of “I saw ten thousand at a glance”

‘Forward they go” which is not a normal English structure of SVA. ‘They go forward’

‘And away they go’ instead of ‘and they go away’

‘While your hive they plunder’ instead of ‘while they plunder your hive’.

28)                      Satire: is a literary technique which principally ridicules its subject which includes individuals, organization or states often as an intended means of provoking or preventing changes. Satire is any piece of writing that uses devices such as irony. It is a text or performance that uses irony, derision or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness or stupidity.

ROLES /FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE

Since literature does not develop from a vacuum, but from the society in which it emanates, it has got different roles to play in the society. The following are some of the most important functions of literature in the society.

i.       Literature educates people in the society. Literary works are used to impart knowledge to the members of the society. It creates awareness on different social political and economic matters taking place in their societies. It educates the young people on how they are expected to behave in accordance with the demands of their societies and the roles they are required to fulfil.

ii.    Literature expresses people’s culture. Since literature develops from the society, it automatically expresses the culture of its people. All cultural aspects like traditions, beliefs, customs, norms etc are expressed so that the society may cherish the good ones and carry them over to the next generations, and modify or discard the outdated ones.

iii. Literature is used to entertain people. Most literary works appeal to the emotions. By reading, listening and watching literary works, we get entertained. Poems and dramas create an enjoyment to the audience different from one we get when we are eating food. Literary enjoyment is called aesthetic pleasure. E.g. comedies and melodrama. 

iv. Literature is used to influence people in the society. More often than not people who are interested in watching, listening and reading literary works are tempted to act like those characters in the respective literary work. During the struggle for independence for example literary works were used to instil revolutionary ideas to the oppressed to take up arms against the oppressor. Consider the poem “Your Pain” by Armando Guebuza.

v.    Literature is used to develop language. By reading, listening and watching literary works, people improve their language skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing. People may also improve their vocabulary stock since they will not only come across a number of new words but also know how they are used in real contexts. Authors do also come with new words, phrases, idioms, figures of speech, that help to develop the language.

vi. Literature is used to liberate people mentally and physically. Literary works present the message that helps to liberate the society mentally as a result they liberate themselves physically. It conscitizes the society about the existence of oppressive systems and suggest ways to get rid of those systems. E.g. United we stand, divided we fall.

vii.    Literature is used to criticize the society. 

Literature may be used to criticise the society in a sense that it points out the burning issues and requests the society to resolve them. More often than not literary artists point out the evils done by the traditional society e.g.  Perpetuating the outdated customs like FGM, Widow Inheritance, forced marriages etc. and ask the society to discard them. They may also point the wrongs done by the ruling class and suggest the ways to get rid of these leaders.