Characteristics/Features of Oral Literature by Samwitason

 

Characteristics/Features of Oral Literature

 

The concept of an oral literature is an unfamiliar one to most people brought up in cultures which, like those of contemporary Europe, lay stress on the idea of literacy and written tradition. Nevertheless, there are certain definite characteristics of this form of art which arise from its oral nature, and it is important at the outset to point to the implications of these. They need to be understood before we can appreciate the status and qualities of many of these African literary forms;

1.     Oral literature is based on the actual performance. Oral literature is by definition dependent on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion—there is no other way in which it can be realized as a literary product. This point is obvious if we consider literary forms designed to be delivered to an audience even in more familiar literate cultures. If we take forms like a play/drama, we understand that they become effective if presented on stage than read as a book.

2.     Oral literature is transmitted through words of mouth. The term ‘oral’ by itself means spoken rather than written. So Oral Literature uses the words of mouth (spoken form) as its medium of presenting the message to the audience. The audience receive the message by listening and watching.

3.     In oral literature the artist and the audience have a face to face contact. Since the artist meets with his public face to face he can take advantage of this to enhance the impact as well as be influenced by. Sometimes he chooses to involve his listeners directly, as in story-telling situations where it is common for the narrator to open with a phrase which arouses his audience’s attention; he  also often expects them to participate actively in the narration and, in particular, to join in the choruses of songs which he introduces into the narrative.

4.     Oral literature is contextual. It improvises the local environment and the time in which it is presented. The narrator telling a story around Lake zone may say “the hippo disappeared into the lake” but the same story may use the clause “the hippo disappeared into the sea” if told in Dar-es-Salaam. Even within the same culture there may be many set styles of performance designed to suit the different literary genres recognized in the culture. Indeed, these genres are sometimes primarily distinguished from each other in terms of their media of performance rather than their content or purpose.

5.     Oral literature is born, grows, lives and dies. Due to the development of science and technology, oral literature is affected dramatically in its lifespan. While it is true that oral literature is older than its written counterpart, it faces tremendous threats from the rapid development of science and technology in its growth, spread and survival. As most oral literature works are being preserved in other forms than human memory, they begin to lose their oral flavour. Today we have works stored in CDs, DVDs, Tapes, Computers, memory cards, books, etc. so oral literature has lost its oral quality and some works are now extinct.

6.     Oral literature is performed in special venues like theatres. This can be a building or an outdoor area where plays and similar types of entertainment are performed. These are used for live performances by live actors to a live audience. This is one of the things that are at risk of extinction since there are hardly any theatres in most contemporary societies today. People sit at home and watch TV dramas, movies and films than going to the theatres for live performances.

 

Challenges Facing Oral Literature

Oral literature has encountered many challenges in the course of its development from time immemorial. Most of the forms of oral literature are either extinct or in different stages towards extinction. Oral literature has been affected in the areas of preservation (which was predominantly dependent upon human memory), presentation (predominantly through words of mouth), and growth (spread).

On one side, the biggest challenge has been the death of the artists (elders) who had preserved these works in their memory. Their deaths lead inevitably to the death of the literary works they had preserved altogether. On the other side, the artist may forget or change some important aspects of the story to the point that as the story is told from time to time across generations it loses its original quality.

In order to combat the problem and due to the development of science and technology, there have been some deliberate attempts to preserve oral literature using modern methods including; written form (books), tapes, DVDs, CDs, Computers, etc. We are going to look at how the development of science and technology has had tremendous effects on these aspects and how oral literature has changed dramatically

 

The Impacts of Science and Technology on Oral Literature

a.     It becomes expensive if preserved/stored in modern storage devices. Oral literature is known to be transmitted freely from one generation to another. It involves less or no cost to get oral literature works. However, the attempt to preserve oral literature works from extinction has made it expensive and costly.  If it is preserved in modern devices like CDs, DVDs, Tapes, Memory cards, Computers, books etc.; one will have to buy them to be able to listen and watch these works.

b.     There is no face-to-face interaction between the artist and the audience. Since oral literature is preserved in modern devices it has lost its liveliness since the artist and the audience do not interact face to face. So, the artist cannot involve the audience in clapping, singing, dancing, or doing other actions they would do if they had a direct contact.

c.     There is delay of feedback. It is very hard for the artist to get the feedback from the audience when oral literature is preserved and presented through modern devices. The artist may be living in another country or even continent where the audience can hardly give them the feedback. So, the artist cannot assess immediately is their works are successful or not.

d.     There is no specific setting. Literary works stored in other forms than human memory do not need a specific setting. One doesn’t need to go to the theatre to watch a drama stored in a DVD, or VCD. One can watch it at home, in the bus, in the classroom, or anywhere through the computer or smartphone.

e.     It changes the medium of presentation. There is absence of performance (sound effects and actions) if stored in writings. It is difficult to call the work of art stored in written form as oral literature. Oral literature loses some of its qualities when stored in other forms than human memory since literary works preserved in writings will no longer be called “oral” but “written”. So the medium of presentation is no longer performance but reading.

f.      Due to copyright issues it no longer belongs to the society. It becomes the property of the artist. Any literary work preserved in form of a CD, DVD, book, VCD, and other forms than human memory, belong to the artist who preserved them. Other people are not free to use the works without permission from the artist. So instead of being a product of the society it becomes a product of the author.

g.     It does not involve all members of the community. If oral literature is preserved in other forms it begins to discriminate some members of the society who are illiterate. If stored in written form for instance, only those who can read will be able to know what is written there. Those with hearing impairment cannot enjoy the works stored in audio devices.

h.     Vulnerability of storage devices. Some devices like CDs, DVDs, computers; TVs, etc. are susceptible to damage. The modern devices are vulnerable, delicate and susceptible to damage. If the device is damaged or lost the work stored in it is also damaged or lost completely. These devices need a careful handling unless otherwise all the works will be lost.

i.       It becomes rigid to change. It doesn’t change easily because one cannot change or edit something printed in a book or written on CD, DVD, or VCD. The drama recorded in India will be played the same way across the world without considering the culture of other peoples (races). Even when there is a content that is morally unacceptable in another culture one cannot change it.

j.       Lack of motivation in oral literature. The modern devices have made people lose interest in old forms of oral literature. It is hard today to find young children gathered around the evening fire, listening to the stories from grandpas or grandmas. They rather like sitting at the sitting room watching video films and movies than going to the theatre to watch live performances. Because of that many works are lost and forgotten. The liveliness of oral literature depended on the extent to which it was passed from one generation to another. Since it is no longer passed in the same manner, the works are lost when the elders who had preserved these works die.

A Glossary of the Literary Terms. by Samwitason

 

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A Glossary of the Literary Terms.

 

 

Act is a major division within a play, similar to a chapter in a book. Each act may be further divided into smaller sections, called scenes.

Adventure Story is a literary work in which action is the main element. An adventure novel usually focuses on a main character who is on a mission and faces many challenges and choices.

Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. Note the repetition of the w sound in this line.

 Allusion is a reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature.

Analogy is a comparison between two things that are alike in some way. Often, writers use analogies to explain unfamiliar subjects or ideas in terms of familiar ones. See also Metaphor; Simile.

Anecdote is a short account of an event that is usually intended to entertain or make a point. 

Antagonist is a force working against the protagonist, or main character, in a story, play, or novel. The antagonist is usually another character but can be a force of nature, society itself, or an internal force within the main character. See also Protagonist.

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within non-rhyming words.

Audience is the group of readers that the writer is addressing. A writer considers his or her audience when deciding on a subject, a purpose, a tone, and a style in which to write.

Author’s Perspective is the combination of ideas, values, feelings, and beliefs that influences the way the writer looks at a topic. Tone, or attitude, often reveals an author’s perspective. See also Author’s Purpose; Tone.

Author’s Purpose A writer usually writes for one or more of these purposes: to express thoughts or feelings, to inform or explain, to persuade, or to entertain. See also Author’s Perspective.

Autobiography is a writer’s account of his or her own life. In almost every case, it is told from the first-person point of view. An autobiography focuses on the most important events and people in the writer’s life over a period of time. See also Memoir.

Ballad is a type of narrative poem that tells a story and was originally meant to be sung or recited. Because it tells a story, a ballad has a setting, a plot, and characters.

Folk ballads were composed orally and handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation.

Biography is the true account of a person’s life, written by another person. As such, biographies are glossary of literary terms usually told from a third-person point of view. The writer of a biography — a biographer — usually researches his or her subject in order to present accurate information. The best biographers strive for honesty and balance in their accounts of their subjects’ lives.

Blurb A short description at the back cover of a book, written by the author or publisher, which is intended to attract your attention and make you want to buy it.

Cast of Characters In the script of a play, a cast of characters is a list of all the characters in the play, usually in order of appearance. It may include a brief description of each character.

Characters are the people, animals, or imaginary creatures who take part in the action of a work of literature. Like real people, characters display certain qualities, or character traits, that develop and change over time, and they usually have motivations, or reasons, for their behaviours.

¨     Main character: Main characters are the most important characters in literary works. Generally, the plot of a short story focuses on one main character, but a novel may have several main characters.

¨     Minor characters: The less important characters in a literary work are known as minor characters. The story is not centred on them, but they help carry out the action of the story and help the reader learn more about the main character.

¨     Dynamic character: A dynamic character is one who undergoes important changes as a plot unfolds. The changes occur because of the character’s actions and experiences in the story. The changes are usually internal and may be good or bad. Main characters are usually, though not always, dynamic.

¨     Static character: A static character is one who remains the same throughout a story. The character may experience events and interact with other characters, but he or she is not changed because of them.

Character Development Characters that change during a story are said to undergo character development. Any character can change, but main characters usually develop the most.

Characterization The way a writer creates and develops characters is known as characterization. There are four basic methods of characterization:

¨     The writer may make direct comments about a character through the voice of the narrator.

¨     The writer may describe the character’s physical appearance.

¨     The writer may present the character’s own thoughts, speech, and actions.

¨     The writer may present the thoughts, speech, and actions of other characters.

Character Traits Character traits are the qualities shown by a character. Traits may be physical (tall) or expressions of personality (confidence). Writers reveal the traits of their characters through methods of characterization. Sometimes writers directly state a character’s traits, but more often readers need to infer traits from a character’s words, actions, thoughts, appearance, and relationships. Examples of words that describe traits include brave, considerate, and rude.

Climax The climax stage is the point of greatest interest in a story or play. The climax usually occurs toward the end of a story, after the reader has understood the conflict and become emotionally involved with the characters. At the climax, the conflict is resolved and the outcome of the plot usually becomes clear.

Coincidence this is the fact of two things happening at the same time by chance, in a surprising way.

Comedy A comedy is a dramatic work that is light and often humorous in tone, usually ending happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict.

Conflict A conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. Almost every story has a main conflict—a conflict that is the story’s focus. An external conflict involves a character who struggles against a force outside him- or herself, such as nature, a physical obstacle, or another character. An internal conflict is one that occurs within a character.

Connotation A word’s connotations are the ideas and feelings associated with the word, as opposed to its dictionary definition. For example, the word bread, in addition to its basic meaning (“a baked food made from flour and other ingredients”), has connotations of life and general nourishment. See Denotation.

Couplet is a rhymed pair of lines. A couplet may be written in any rhythmic pattern.

Before the coming of the night

The moon shows papery white;

—Christina Rossetti, “Is the Moon Tired?”

See also Rhyme; Stanza.

Critical Essay See Essay.

Cultural Values Cultural values are the behaviours that a society expects from its people.

Denotation A word’s denotation is its dictionary definition. See also Connotation.

Description is writing that helps a reader to picture events, objects, and characters. To create descriptions, writers often use imagery—words and phrases that appeal to the reader’s senses.

Dialect is a form of a language that is spoken in a particular place or by a particular group of people. Dialects may feature unique pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammar.

Dialogue is written conversation between two or more characters. Writers use dialogue to bring characters to life and to give readers insights into the characters’ qualities, traits, and reactions to other characters. In fiction, dialogue is usually set off with quotation marks. In drama, stories are told primarily through dialogue.

Diary is a daily record of a writer’s thoughts, experiences, and feelings. As such, it is a type of autobiographical writing. A journal is another term for a diary.

Drama A drama, or play, is a form of literature meant to be performed by actors in front of an audience. In a drama, the characters’ dialogue and actions tell the story. The written form of a drama is called a script. A script usually includes dialogue, a cast of characters, and stage directions that give instructions about performing the drama. The person who writes the drama is known as the playwright or dramatist.

Enjambment refers to the fact of a sentence continuing beyond the end of a line of poetry.

Epic Poem is a long narrative poem about the adventures of a hero whose actions reflect the ideals and values of a nation or a group of people.

Epigram A short poem or phrase that expresses an idea in a clever or amusing way.

Epigraph A line of writing, short phrase, saying, or quotation at the beginning of a book or chapter as an introduction intended to suggest its theme.

Epilogue A short speech, (often in verse) addressed directly to the audience at the end of a play, book, or film/movie that comments on or acts as a conclusion to what has happened.

Epithet an adjective or phrase that is used to describe somebody/something's character or most important quality, especially in order to give praise or criticism

Essay is a short work of nonfiction that deals with a single subject. There are many types of essays. An expository essay presents or explains information and ideas. A persuasive essay attempts to convince the reader to adopt a certain viewpoint. A critical essay evaluates a situation or a work of art. A personal essay usually reflects the writer’s experiences, feelings, and personality.

Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea is called an exaggeration. It is often used for purposes of emphasis or humour.

Exposition is the first stage of a typical story plot. The exposition provides important background information and introduces the setting and the important characters. The conflict the characters face may also be introduced in the exposition, or it may be introduced later, in the rising action. See also Plot.

Expository Essay See Essay.

External Conflict See Conflict.

Fable is a brief tale told to illustrate a moral or teach a lesson. Often the moral of a fable appears in a distinct and memorable statement near the tale’s beginning or end. See also Moral.

Falling Action is the stage of the plot in which the story begins to draw to a close. The falling action comes after the climax and before the resolution. Events in the falling action show the results of the important decision or action that happened at the climax. Tension eases as the falling action begins; however, the final outcome of the story is not yet fully worked out at this stage. See also Climax; Plot.

Fantasy is a type of fiction that is highly imaginative and portrays events, settings, or characters that are unrealistic. The setting might be a non-existent world, the plot might involve magic or the supernatural, and the characters might have superhuman powers.

Fiction is prose writing that tells an imaginary story. The writer of a short story or novel might invent all the events and characters or might base parts of the story on real people and events. The basic elements of fiction are plot, character, setting, and theme. Different types of fiction include realistic fiction, historical fiction, science fiction, and fantasy. See also Novel; Novella; Short Story.

Figurative Language In figurative language, words are used in an imaginative way to express ideas that are not literally true. “Megan has a bee in her bonnet” is an example of figurative language. The sentence does not mean that Megan is wearing a bonnet, nor that there is an actual bee in it. Instead, it means that Megan is angry or upset about something. Figurative language is used for comparison, emphasis, and emotional effect. See also Metaphor; Onomatopoeia; Personification; Simile.

First-Person Point of View See Point of View.

Flashback In a literary work, a flashback is an interruption of the action to present events that took place at an earlier time. A flashback provides information that can help a reader better understand a character’s current situation.

Folklore The traditions, customs, and stories that are passed down within a culture are known as its folklore. Folklore includes various types of literature, such as legends, folk tales, myths, trickster tales, and fables. See also Fable; Folk Tale; Myth.

Folk Tale is a story that has been passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. Folk tales may be set in the distant past and involve supernatural events. The characters in them may be animals, people, or superhuman beings.  

Foreshadowing occurs when a writer provides hints that suggest future events in a story. Foreshadowing creates suspense and makes readers eager to find out what will happen.

Form The structure or organization of a written work is often called its form. The form of a poem includes the arrangement of its words and lines on the page.

Free Verse Poetry without regular patterns of rhyme and rhythm is called free verse. Some poets use free verse to capture the sounds and rhythms of ordinary speech. See also Rhyme, Rhythm.

Genre The term genre refers to a category in which a work of literature is classified. The major genres in literature are fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama.

Haiku is a form of Japanese poetry in which 17 syllables are arranged in three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. The rules of haiku are strict. In addition to following the syllabic count, the poet must create a clear picture that will evoke a strong emotional response in the reader. Nature is a particularly important source of inspiration for Japanese haiku poets, and details from nature are often the subjects of their poems.

Hero is a main character or protagonist in a story. In older literary works, heroes tend to be better than ordinary humans. They are typically courageous, strong, honourable, and intelligent. They are protectors of society who hold back the forces of evil and fight to make the world a better place. In modern literature, a hero may simply be the most important character in a story. Such a hero is often an ordinary person with ordinary problems.

Historical Fiction A short story or a novel can be called historical fiction when it is set in the past and includes real places and real events of historical importance.

Humour is a quality that provokes laughter or amusement. Writers create humour through exaggeration, amusing descriptions, irony, and witty and insightful dialogue.

Hypophora. A figure of speech in which a writer raises a question, and then immediately provides an answer to that question. E.g. “What shall we do to keep Corona away from our homes? Many things, obviously. But the most important is to stay indoors.”

Idiom is an expression that has a meaning different from the meaning of its individual words. For example, “to let the cat out of the bag” is an idiom meaning “to reveal a secret or surprise.”

Imagery consists of words and phrases that appeal to a reader’s five senses. Writers use sensory details to help the reader imagine how things look, feel, smell, sound, and taste.

Internal Conflict See Conflict.

Interview is a conversation conducted by a writer or reporter, in which facts or statements are elicited from another person, recorded, and then broadcast or published.

Irony is a contrast between what is expected and what actually exists or happens. Exaggeration and sarcasm are techniques writers use to express irony.

Journal See Diary.

Legend A legend is a story handed down from the past about a specific person, usually someone of heroic accomplishments. Legends usually have some basis in historical fact.

Limerick is a short, humorous poem made up of five lines. It usually has the rhyme scheme aabba, created by two rhyming couplets followed by a fifth line that rhymes with the first couplet. A limerick typically has a sing-song rhythm.

There was an Old Man with a beard, a

Who said, “It is just as I feared!”— a

Two Owls and a Hen, b

Four Larks and a Wren, b

Have all built their nests in my beard!” a

—Edward Lear

Literary Nonfiction See Narrative Nonfiction.

Lyric Poetry is poetry that presents the personal thoughts and feelings of a single speaker. Most poems, other than narrative poems, are lyric poems. Lyric poetry can be in a variety of forms and cover many subjects, from love and death to everyday experiences.

Main Character See Character.

Memoir is a form of autobiographical writing in which a writer shares his or her personal experiences and observations of important events or people. Often informal in tone, memoirs usually give readers information about the impact of historical events on people’s lives. See also Autobiography.

Metaphor is a comparison of two things that are basically unlike but have some qualities in common. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain the word like or as. See also Figurative Language; Simile.

Meter In poetry, meter is the regular pattern of stressed (´) and unstressed (ˌ) syllables. Although poems have rhythm, not all poems have regular meter. Each unit of meter is known as a foot and is made up of one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed syllables. See also Rhythm.

Minor Character See Character.

Mood is the feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader. Descriptive words, imagery, and figurative language all influence the mood of a work.

Moral is a lesson that a story teaches. A moral is often stated at the end of a fable.  See also Fable.

Motivation is the reason why a character acts, feels, or thinks in a certain way. A character may have more than one motivation for his or her actions. Understanding these motivations helps readers get to know the character.

Myth is a traditional story that attempts to answer basic questions about human nature, origins of the world, mysteries of nature, and social customs.

Narrative Writing that tells a story is called a narrative. The events in a narrative may be real or imagined. Autobiographies and biographies are narratives that deal with real people or events. Fictional narratives include short stories, fables, myths, and novels. A narrative may also be in the form of a poem. See also Autobiography; Biography.

Narrative Nonfiction is writing that reads much like fiction, except that the characters, setting, and plot are real rather than imaginary. Narrative nonfiction includes autobiographies, biographies, and memoirs.

Narrative Poetry this is a kind of poetry that tells a story. Like fiction, a narrative poem contains characters, a setting, and a plot. It might also contain such elements of poetry as rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and figurative language.

Narrator is the voice that tells a story. Sometimes the narrator is a character in the story. At other times, the narrator is an outside voice created by the writer. The narrator is not the same as the writer. See also Point of View.

Nonfiction is writing that talks about real people, places, and events. Unlike fiction, nonfiction is mainly written to convey factual information. Nonfiction includes a wide range of writing—newspaper articles, letters, essays, biographies, movie reviews, speeches, true-life adventure stories, advertising, and more.

Novel is a long work of fiction. Like a short story, a novel is the product of a writer’s imagination. Because a novel is considerably longer than a short story, a novelist can develop the characters and story line more thoroughly. See also Fiction.

Novella is a work of fiction that is longer than a short story but shorter than a novel. Due to its shorter length, a novella generally includes fewer characters and a less complex plot than a novel. See also Fiction; Novel; Short Story.

Ode is a type of lyric poem that deals with serious themes, such as justice, truth, or beauty.

Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sounds echo their meanings, such as buzz, whisper, gargle, and murmur. Example;. I pulled the strings out of my stalk. Z-z-zip, z-z-zip.

Oral Literature, or the oral tradition, consists of stories that have been passed down by word of mouth from generation to generation. Oral literature includes folk tales, legends, and myths. In more recent times, some examples of oral literature have been written down or recorded so that the stories can be preserved.

Parody A parody is a humorous imitation of another writer’s work. Parodies can take the form of fiction, drama, or poetry.

Personal Essay See Essay.

Personification The giving of human qualities to an animal, object, or idea is known as personification. See Figurative Language.

Persuasive Essay See Essay.

Play See Drama.

Playwright See Drama.

Plot The series of events in a story is called the plot. The plot usually centres on a conflict, or struggle, faced by the main character. The action that the characters take to solve the problem builds toward a climax in the story. At this point, or shortly afterward, the problem is solved and the story ends. Most story plots have five stages: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

See also Climax; Exposition; Falling Action; Rising Action.

Poetry is a type of literature in which words are carefully chosen and arranged to create certain effects. Poets use a variety of sound devices, imagery, and figurative language to express emotions and ideas. See also Alliteration; Assonance; Ballad; Free Verse; Imagery; Meter; Narrative Poetry; Rhyme; Rhythm; Stanza.

Point of View refers to how a writer chooses to narrate a story. When a story is told from the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and uses first-person pronouns, such as I, me, and we. In a story told from the third-person point of view, the narrator is not a character. A writer’s choice of narrator affects the information readers receive. See also Narrator.

Preface an introduction to a book, especially one that explains the author's aims

Prologue A speech, at the beginning of a play, book, or film/ movie that introduces it. 

Prop The word prop, originally an abbreviation of the word property, refers to any physical object that is used in a drama.

Prose The word prose refers to all forms of writing that are not in verse form. The term may be used to describe very different forms of writing—short stories as well as essays, for example.

Protagonist is the main character in a story, play, or novel. The protagonist is involved in the main conflict of the story. Usually, the protagonist undergoes changes as the plot runs its course.

Pun is a play on words based on similar senses of two or more words, or on various meanings of the same word. A pun is usually made for humorous effect.

Example: The fisherman was fired for playing hooky.

Radio Play is a drama that is written specifically to be broadcast over the radio. Because the audience is not meant to see a radio play, sound effects are often used to help listeners imagine the setting and the action. The stage directions in the play’s script indicate the sound effects.

Realistic Fiction is fiction that is set in the real, modern world. The characters behave like real people and use human abilities to cope with modern life’s problems and conflicts..

Recurring Theme See Theme.

Refrain is one or more lines repeated in each stanza of a poem. See also Stanza.

Repetition is a technique in which a sound, word, phrase, or line is repeated for emphasis or unity. Repetition often helps to reinforce meaning and create an appealing rhythm. Note how the use of repetition in the following lines emphasizes the rhythm of windshield wipers.

fog smog fog smog

tissue paper tissue paper

clear the blear clear the smear

Eve Merriam, “Windshield Wiper”

See also Alliteration; Sound Devices.

Resolution See Falling Action.

Rhyme is the repetition of sounds at the end of words. Words rhyme when their accented vowels and the letters that follow have identical sounds. Pig and dig rhyme, as do reaching and teaching. The most common type of rhyme in poetry is called end rhyme, in which rhyming words come at the ends of lines. Rhyme that occurs within a line of poetry is called internal rhyme. The following lines are examples of end rhyme.

 

Shadows on the wall

Noises down the hall

Life doesn’t frighten me at all

—Maya Angelou, “Life Doesn’t Frighten Me”

Rhyme Scheme is a pattern of end rhymes in a poem. A rhyme scheme is noted by assigning a letter of the alphabet, beginning with a, to each line. Lines that rhyme are given the same letter.

Is the moon tired? she looks so pale a

Within her misty veil: a

She scales the sky from east to west, b

And takes no rest. b

—Christina Rossetti, “Is the Moon Tired?”

Rhythm is a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. Poets use rhythm to bring out the musical quality of language, to emphasize ideas, and to create moods. Devices such as alliteration, rhyme, and assonance often contribute to creating rhythm. See also Meter.

Rising Action is the stage of the plot that develops the conflict, or struggle. During this stage, events occur that make the conflict more complicated. The events in the rising action build toward a climax, or turning point. See also Plot.

Scene In drama, the action is often divided into acts and scenes. Each scene presents an episode of the play’s plot and typically occurs at a single place and time. See also Act.

Scenery is a painted backdrop or other structures used to create the setting for a play.

Science Fiction is a fiction in which a writer explores unexpected possibilities of the past or the future, combining scientific information with his or her creative imagination. Most science fiction writers create believable worlds, although some create fantasy worlds that have familiar elements. See also Fantasy.

Script The text of a play, film, or broadcast is called a script.

Sensory Details are words and phrases that appeal to the reader’s senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Note the sensory details in the following line. These details appeal to the sense of touch.

But they were running and turning their faces up to the sky and feeling the sun on their cheeks like a warm iron; they were taking off their jackets and letting the sun burn their arms.

—Ray Bradbury, “All Summer in a Day”

See also Imagery.

Setting The setting of a story, poem, or play is the time and place of the action. Sometimes the setting is clear and well-defined. At other times, it is left to the reader’s imagination. Elements of setting include geographic location, historical period (past, present, or future), season, time of day, and culture.

Short Story is a work of fiction that centres on a single idea and can be read in one sitting. Generally, a short story has one main conflict that involves the characters and keeps the story moving. See also Fiction.

Simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things using the word like or as. See also Figurative Language; Metaphor.

Sound Devices are ways of using words for the sound qualities they create. Sound devices can help convey meaning and mood in a writer’s work. Some common sound devices include alliteration, onomatopoeia, assonance, meter, repetition, rhyme, and rhythm. See also Alliteration; Assonance; Meter; Onomatopoeia; Repetition; Rhyme; Rhythm.

Speaker In poetry the speaker is the voice that “talks” to the reader, similar to the narrator in fiction. The speaker is not necessarily the poet.

Speech A speech is a talk or public address. The purpose of a speech may be to entertain, to explain, to persuade, to inspire, or any combination of these purposes.

Stage Directions In the script of a play, the instructions to the actors, director, and stage crew are called the stage directions. Stage directions might suggest scenery, lighting, sound effects, and ways for actors to move and speak. Stage directions often appear in parentheses and in italic type. (Suddenly he notices the package. He drags himself over to it, and disinterestedly reads the label.)

Stanza is a group of two or more lines that form a unit in a poem. Each stanza may have the same number of lines, or the number of lines may vary. See also Couplet; Form; Poetry.

Stereotype In literature, characters that are defined by a single trait are known as stereotypes. Such characters do not usually demonstrate the complexities of real people. Familiar stereotypes in popular literature include the absent-minded professor and the busybody.

Structure The structure of a work of literature is the way in which it is put together. In poetry, structure involves the arrangement of words and lines to produce a desired effect. One structural unit in poetry is the stanza. In prose, structure involves the arrangement of such elements as sentences, paragraphs, and events. Sentence structure refers to the length and types of sentences used in a work.

Style is a manner of writing. It involves how something is said rather than what is said.

Subject The subject of a literary work is its focus or topic. In an autobiography, for example, the subject is the life of the person telling the story. Subject differs from theme in that theme is a deeper meaning, whereas the subject is the main situation or set of facts described by the text.

Surprise Ending is an unexpected plot twist at the end of a story. The surprise may be a sudden turn in the action or a piece of information that gives a different perspective to the entire story.

Suspense is a feeling of growing tension and excitement felt by a reader. Suspense makes a reader curious about the outcome of a story or an event within a story. A writer creates suspense by raising questions in the reader’s mind. The use of foreshadowing is one way that writers create suspense. See Foreshadowing.

Symbol is a person, a place, an object, or an activity that stands for something beyond itself. For example, a flag is a coloured piece of cloth that stands for a country. A white dove is a bird that represents peace.

Tall Tale is a humorously exaggerated story about impossible events, often involving the supernatural abilities of the main character. Stories about folk heroes such as Pecos Bill and Paul Bunyan are typical tall tales.

Teleplay is a play written for television. In a teleplay, scenes can change quickly and dramatically. The camera can focus the viewer’s attention on specific actions. The camera directions in teleplays are much like the stage directions in stage plays.

Theme is a main idea about life or human nature that the writer shares with the reader. In many cases, readers must infer what the writer’s main idea is. One way of figuring out a theme is to apply the lessons learned by the main characters to people in real life.

Recurring themes are themes found in a variety of works. For example, authors from different backgrounds might express similar themes having to do with the importance of family values. Universal themes are themes that are found throughout the literature of all time periods. See also Moral.

Third-Person Point of View See Point of View.

Title The title of a piece of writing is the name that is attached to it. A title often refers to an important aspect of the work.

Tone The tone of a literary work expresses the writer’s attitude toward his or her subject. Words such as angry, sad, and humorous can be used to describe different tones. See also Author’s Perspective.

Tragedy A tragedy is a dramatic work that presents the downfall of a character or characters. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment on the part of the hero. Events are linked in a cause-and-effect relationship and lead to a disastrous conclusion, usually death.

Voice The term voice refers to a writer’s unique use of language that allows a reader to “hear” a human personality in the writer’s work. Elements of style that contribute to a writer’s voice can reveal much about the author’s personality, beliefs, and attitudes.

Word Choice The success of any writing depends on the writer’s choice of words. Words not only communicate ideas but also help describe events, characters, settings, and so on. Word choice can make a writer’s work sound formal or informal, serious or humorous. A writer must choose words carefully depending on the goal of the piece of writing. For example, a writer working on a science article would probably use technical, formal words; a writer trying to establish the setting in a short story would probably use more descriptive words. Word choice is sometimes referred to as diction. See also Style.